The new morality; an interpretation of present social and economic forces and tendencies

Preface

Hansen’s theory of the Bevolkerungsstrom, or population current, is in sociology what the theory of the circulation of the blood is in medicine. This book owes much to him. My earlier data have been drawn largely from American conditions; the differences between them and those in Germany, which Dr. Hansen knows best, led me to my first new idea — that the nearness or remoteness of the Malthusian limit is the key to these differences in conditions.

This brought me to the theoretical consideration of a static condition, and the generalization of a two-class system, which covers Hansen’s three classes in a different perspective, and seems the log¬ ical extreme. This gives a long-needed division of the troublesome question as to whether the family or the individual is the unit of society. Provide recognition for both, in distinct classes necessitated by understood conditions, and the whole social organism seems simplified.

As the book grew, it appeared that the keynote to the forces and movements involved in the discus¬ sion is not economic but pedagogical; it is what Solomon and Socrates and Confucius have all told us: that wisdom is better than riches. In other

vii via

PREFACE words, what makes a fecund class is not the posses¬ sion of land, but the intelligence which enables them to get and hold control of the first condition of existence — food supply; and the permanence of the land-holding class is due to the educative influ¬ ence of their mode of life, which automatically makes abler men of them than life in the cities does. The same pedagogical key — conditions which make automatically one environment or mode of life con¬ tribute more to intelligence and will-power than another, appears in other lines of thought in the book.

If I had had more time and opportunity, I should have verified quantitatively many of the data which I have used in a general way. It makes, however, no difference with the main theses if the facts differ by centuries or millions of square miles from the estimates I have used, which are in all cases the best accessible to me. The quantitative facts in many cases are not known accurately to anyone. Many of the straight lines in the diagrams are generaliza¬ tions of curves which could be actually plotted if statistics were available.

I have no desire to initiate any propaganda in favor of the establishment of a system of society different from the present one; I have simply taken up what seems to be an actual tendency in the normal course of evolution, and thought it out to the logical extreme. It has thrown much light for me upon many of the puzzling questions of the day, and I hope it may do the same for others. If new argu-

PREFACE

IX ments can be drawn from the book in favor of such recognized salutary measures as the “ Back to the land ” movement and efforts for world peace, and against over-hasty Socialism and indiscriminate charity, I shall be glad to have contributed my mite to the work of human progress.

E. I.

NOTE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION

This book is published in England with the title, “THE MALTHUSIAN LIMIT: A THEORY OF A POS¬ SIBLE STATIC CONDITION FOR THE HUMAN RACE.”

While that is clearly a logical title for the contents of the book as a scientific thesis, it says nothing as to the practical lessons to be drawn from it; it has therefore seemed to the author and publishers that the American reader will get a more definite idea of something of interest in the book under the title chosen.

PAGE

Rapid increase in the numbers of the human race; due to in¬ creased facilities of transportation — Possible full popula¬ tion of the earth before A. D. 2200 — Possible delay by increased production of food, but Malthusian limit inevitable in time — Rapid occupation of new countries — Problem of static condition must be met . ix

Chapter I Popular Opinion Of City And Country Life

City population recruited from the country — Vices in cities; soundness of country life basis of national prosperity — Cit¬ ies important for higher successes — Fruition stage of society; growth stage in country — City has produced great men, but generally of patrician stock — Country bred on the whole more successful . 3

Chapter II Advantages Of Country Life: The Yeoman

Yeoman taken as the best type of country life — Farm work done by farmer and sons, household work by wife and daughters — Sound physical condition the result — Surround¬ ings less favorable to disease than in cities — Mental quali¬ ties; habits of observation; manual training — Moral quali¬ ties: training of the will by steady application — School opportunities of country children fit them for city as well as country life; those of city children do not fit them for country life and they have nothing which does; therefore they cannot succeed in country — City-bred persons seldom

go to country to earn their living .

V

VI

Chapter III City Conditions; The Patrician

Country bred persons lack knowledge of city conditions at first; advantages which country children have can be ob¬ tained by city children, but at great relative expense — City persons having had such advantages often better adapted to success in cities, but not for propagation of the race — Inherited wealth necessary to keep a city family at a high standard — Patrician class recognized very generally by socity in history, because it has turned out able men; “noblesse oblige” — If wealth fails, family must die out or fall into a lower class .

Chapter IV The Proletarian

Expenses of living greater in the city than in the country — impossible for lower classes to bring up children success¬ fully in city; proper opportunities for work and play lack¬ ing; work which children must do, if any, not suitable for them — Impossible for such children to become farmers; they must remain in city, and steadily deteriorate in suc¬ cessive generations .

Chapter V The Movement From Country To City

Difficulty in defining types: differences in farming popula¬ tion; landed aristocracy compared with yeoman; higher and lower classes in cities — Tendency to increased costliness of standards of living — “Race suicide” in patrician class — “Three generations from shirt-sleeves to shirt-sleeves”; different meaning of the two sets of shirt-sleeves — Elimina¬ tion of the unfit in proletarian class — “The submerged tenth” — Summing up: — i. Country tends to produce more capable men, except in the patrician class. 2. Expense of bringing up children much less in country than in city. 3. Country bred people can succeed in city; city bred peo¬ ple cannot succeed in country — Current of population under vi 1

page theoretical, simple conditions — Actual conditions more com¬ plex, but the law still obtains . 17

Chapter VI Surplus Class

Law of Malthus broadly founded on facts — Surplus class al¬ ways in existence, even in a stationary population — Fecund class related to society as members of family; surplus class as individuals only — Rights and duties of the two classes accordingly different — Old moral codes designed for the fecund class only — Surplus can be governed by such codes if not too numerous — If surplus is in considerable numbers old code works badly; such conditions in great cities at present; such cities a new social phenomenon — Diseases, wars, and famines less fatal than formerly — Improved agriculture employs a smaller proportion of people — Sur¬ plus class likely to increase in future — Surplus class more mobile than formerly, while agricultural class must be stable; difference thereby accentuated — Necessary to con¬ sider carefully problems of surplus class — Old morality founded on unlimited expansion of population — If limit of subsistence is approached, elimination of surplus takes place; how shall this be done with least waste and suffer¬ ing . 23

Chapter VII Theoretical Statement Of The Problem

Economy of the bee-hive: populated from the minimum num¬ ber of individuals; surplus of the weaker sex eliminated; surplus of the stronger sex made neutral and performs all the duties except those of the queen-bee — If human society were organized on analogous principle, 10 per cent, of the women, and less than 1 per cent, of the men, could keep up the numbers of the race — With family conditions as at present, one-third or less of the population will keep up the numbers — Importance of problem of the surplus — Analogy of the forest — Possibilities of regulation ... 27

Vlll

Chapter VIII Theory Of The Fecund Class

Rights and duties of members of the class — Majority of the product of the class in men goes to the surplus — All indi¬ viduals in any way inferior should be placed in the surplus at once — Hopeless individuals eliminated or unsexed — Mental and moral qualities for members of the c’ass — Integer vitae the ideal; no vices permissible — Conditions for the production of best human stock — Diversified farm¬ ing best; wholesale work of any kind detrimental; factory life worst of all — Industrial production not a disadvantage if done under proper conditions — Too sparse a population disadvantageous; grouping of dwellings advisable — Gives better opportunities for cooperation and social intercourse — Number of families to be kept invariable — Cities would have a purely adult population; no proletariate, and no pa¬ trician class unless special provision is made; such special provision would require some of the industrial work to be done by the fecund class; patricians brought up among the professional classes in the country, etc. — Difficulty of ad¬ justing wages to family demands obviated if the fecund class have a monopoly of food supplies .

Chapter IX Economical Status Of The Surplus Class

With room for expansion, surplus is inconspicuous among fecund class, and must be governed by economic and moral code of that class, which holds that it is normal for all to have children — Pressure of population leads to lower wages and increase of celibacy — Individuals of the surplus must be treated as human beings with full rights and duties, not as derelicts — Must give their best work to society, and are entitled to all legitimate enjoyments — Better compensation for intellectual work is reasonable — But little needed by each individual to cover what it is economy for him to provide for himself — Ostentatious wealth a social aim which would disappear — Most of the necessities, and many luxuries, best provided on a wholesale plan, as in the family

IX

PAGE hotel, etc. — City to be much more specialized to a center of business than at present — Provision for old age or sick¬ ness . 42

Chapter X The Moral Status Of The Surplus

Three sets of motives for moral choices: (1) Inherited in¬ stincts; (2) Early habits and teachings; (3) Intelligent rea¬ soning — First two only transmissible to surplus; therefore overwhelming tendency to subject all to moral code of fecund class — Different standard, however, necessary for surplus, because their rights and duties are different — Physical vigor less important for surplus — Surplus freer to sacrifice self for general good — Higher altruistic ideals possible for surplus — Organization under such ideals fa¬ miliar in history: Roman Catholic Church — Incentives: work can be done of too high a character to be rewarded in material equivalents — Family ties of all sorts except parent¬ age can be strong — Esprit de corps — Rights of surplus — Vice and crime defined — Waste of money and minor per¬ sonal vices of surplus would be crimes if practiced by fecund class: Use of alcohol as illustration — Control of sex re¬ lations most important matter in the whole situation — Sex¬ ual appetite a normal one and its use not a vice — Its con¬ sequences very important, and safeguarding of children most important interest of humanity — Ideal of morality for fecund class in this respect not practicable for sur¬ plus — General continence cannot be enforced — Prostitu¬ tion only expedient — Surgical means repugnant and of questionable efficacy — Childless marriage only solution; but to be moral, women must earn their living .... 48

Chapter XI Relation Of Women To The Question

Parenthood makes more difference in the life of a woman than of a man — Four types of women from the “ sexuo-economic” point of view. (A) Mater familias. (B) eratpa. (C) Unmarried member of family. (D) Self-supporting

X woman. In ideal two-class system A and D are normal and permanent, B non-existent, C transient and unimportant — In present order A only recognized as normal and permanent — Two propositions as basis for present ethics: (x) Fecundity desirable for all. (2) Mating always followed by off¬ spring — This ideal suitable only for new country — Safe¬ guarding of family all-important — Man recognized as head of family; society deals with family through him only — This forces all women to type B, before they can reach type A; type B moral under this condition; otherwise B is immoral under all circumstances — With pressure of population all influences tend to make B permanent — B has no useful occupation; Game of “Social Duties” — Type D competes with heads of families for means of livelihood and reduces share of each family, which is the unit of the fecund class; therefore D is immoral when the fecund is the only class; therefore, opposed by old morality — D becomes, when there is a surplus, in some cases the highest moral type, but has to overcome inertia of old code of morals — Eco¬ nomic objections first overcome — Difficulty of overcoming opposition of conventional morals to new forms of sex re¬ lation — Menage libre (type BD) frequent result — AD only permanent composite type which is moral under two-class system — Most plans of reformers attempt to establish some form of this type; not approved by the common sense of the race — “Women’s rights” for the surplus class: (1) To marry and earn her own living; (2) More liberal di¬ vorce laws for her than for the fecund class; (3) Equal compensation with men for the same work .

Chapter XII *

THE PRACTICAL WORKING OUT OF THE THEORY

Two-class plan in line with usual process of evolution — Static condition requires uniform density of the world’s population — Ideal condition probably with less than all that could possibly be fed — Fecund class to be engaged in agriculture — Best place for them middle region of drain¬ age basin — Cities much smaller than now — City dwellers to live in large general homes, giving greatly increased xi

PAGE economy in providing for them — Social ostentation of women of type B eliminated — Social life in the co-operative home; simple, but not ascetic — Small cities at centers of industry — Possible industrial army, with promotion to set¬ tled life in cities — Much of present transportation of goods rendered unnecessary by static condition — Commuters un¬ known — Work of fecund class primarily production of new members of society — Reasons for preferring agricultural life for this purpose — Agricultural land analogous to brood comb of beehive — Regular succession of children in each family — Location of schools and other educational institu¬ tions — Large amount of leisure from mechanical work un¬ der system — Higher occupations: reading, social inter¬ course, travel — Plan in its entirety impossible without radical changes — Value of discussion . 72

Chapter XIII Das Ewig-weibliche

Basis of theory resumed; its advantages — Surplus class never recognized by law or custom; helpfulness of discussion of such a distinction — Woman question; elimination of type B great gain — Divorce question; strict rules for A, freer for D — Present troubles largely due to B — Domestic service; for A done by C, for D by others of same class — Most of domestic servants at present part of social game of B — Dress; present custom suitable for A, unsuitable for D . 89

Chapter XIV The Wages Question

Elements of production: land, capital, management, labor — Combinations of functions; yeoman exercises all four — Competition — In new countries no monopoly of land — Competitive system good in such condition — Basis of wages —-with increased population land ownership becomes mo¬ nopoly — Change of meaning of capital: newer meaning, ownership of means of production and a right to a share of product without effort on part of capitalists — Illustra-

XU

PAGE tion of conditions by hypothetical small party on limited land area — Static condition necessitates new theory of wages: share in general product rather than equivalent for work done — Share of family necessarily greater than of individual — By making clear distinction between classes this can be intelligently adjusted . 95

Chapter XV Land Tenures, Capitalism And Property In General

Land tenures — Value of land depends upon opportunity for production — Ownership of real estate dangerous monopoly only when land is too valuable for agriculture — Fecund class can have private ownership of farm land, other land and means of production, worked by the surplus class, held by public ownership — Modern capitalism essentially share¬ holding in general resources of society; does not need per¬ sonal ability — Modern manager important; always be¬ longs to capitalist class — Graphic representation of indus¬ trial changes — Currents of population . no

Chapter XVI Socialism

Graphic representation of outcome of present conditions: capi¬ talism increases; employee class kept at minimum living wage; as pressure increases margin of comfort decreases, until all are in equal want, and return to savagery inevita¬ ble unless numbers are intelligently reduced — Socialist ideal — Socialism belongs to modern industrial class; in¬ stance from “Looking Backward” — Socialists desire better opportunities for family life — Results would be rapid in¬ crease in numbers without increase in intelligence — Final catastrophe of capitalist system would come still more rapidly — Capitalism conserves resources and teaches neces¬ sity of restricting numbers — Illustration by hypothetical mill stream and adjoining country — Explanation of So¬ cialism: represents industrialism carried to the extreme.

CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

— Socialists are those who should belong to surplus class in static condition . iz6

Chapter XVII Anarchism And Theories Of Government

Anarchist's ultimate ideal same as that of Socialist — Group action always necessary — Usual procedure — Public busi¬ ness tends to build up a ruling class — War and religion give opportunities for usurpation of power — Business func¬ tions of government require general intelligence — Dangers of government obviated by static conditions on two-class basis — Suffrage questions . 138

Chapter XVIII Logical Outcome Of The Theory In Practice

Assume theory in practice — Objections to capitalism — Futil¬ ity of Socialist programme for solution — Solution by two-class theory — Graphic representation of tendency — Theo¬ retical ideal reached without distress . 146

Chapter XIX Development Of A New Country On The Two-class Basis

Study of resources — Establishment of breeding-place and of cities — Control of commerce — Precautions against capi¬ talism; new countries at present show dangers of system — Undesirable laborers . 152

Chapter XX

Quantitative study of resources — “Back to the Land” — Mis¬ conceptions of the meaning of the phrase — Must mean back to the yeomanry, not for individuals, but for the race — Elimination of the proletarian — Troubles with Mrs. Grundy and the clergy — Important task of medical profession — Patrician class — Measures for making most of it in transiy CONTENTS

PAGE

tion period — Dangers of palliative measures for poor of cities — Tendencies towards Socialism wholesome if affect¬ ing only surplus class . 156

Chapter XXI

Humanity progresses by consciousness of larger and larger group interests, through the necessity for defense against ag¬ gression from other groups — Arbitration and tribunals — Organization gives greater individual freedom within group ■ — Graphic representation of different forms of government and group action — Dynamic majority — Practical but legally unrecognized forms of authority — Constitutional govern¬ ment impossible without general literacy — Necessity of united action against something outside of group only mo¬ tive for altruism — Danger of overpopulation gives such a motive for whole race — Changes in belief necessary — Num¬ bers no longer important . 167

Chapter XXII A Basis For Universal Organization

World peace — Necessity for each country to feed itself — Industrial warfare; its waste to be prevented — Commerce no longer an advantage, but for the whole race a waste —

Its advantages not economic, but pedagogical — Ideal of static condition division of earth’s surface among small unit groups, each based on proper number of fecund families — Exchange of intelligence among such groups — Advantages for free individual development . 176

Chapter XXIII Climate And Race

Northern nations most enterprising — Analysis of influence of climate — Zone best suited for man; corresponds to yeoman class in single country — All people in this zone capable of high civilization — Zone divided among four races; Ger¬ manic, Latin, Slav, Mongolian — Four divisions: Western

XV

TAGE

Europe, China, Russia, North America — These four groups dominate entire earth — Problems of each group — China and Russia independent of other groups — North America and Europe allied — Western Europe should adopt static condition and give up local rivalries — Motives — Navy question — Possible international navy — Advantages of such a plan — Tariff wars . 182

Chapter XXIV Practical Measures For Internationalism

Europe now at zenith of influence; other groups bound to outstrip it — Difficulties in relation to the tropics — Ideal con¬ ditions equitable trade and not domination — Europe alone now dynamic majority in all world questions, but cannot maintain position — For its interest to use influence in favor of world peace — Modern possibilities for spread of informa¬ tion — International commissions — Possibility of permanent international assembly — Its possible functions and meth¬ ods — Questions for its consideration — Significance of uni¬ versal calendar — Necessity for conservatism in action . . 194

THE MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION FOR THE HUMAN RACE

According to Mulhall, the population of the earth at the time of the Roman Empire was 54,- 000,000, and by the 15th century the population of Europe had reached about the same figure. In the year 1800, the population of Europe was about 170,000,000, and in 1900 their descendants, at home and in America and elsewhere, numbered over 500,000,000. No country of which we have reliable statistics at different times shows an actual falling off, except from emigration, unless it is from temporary causes like a great war or pestilence. Where emigration has kept down the numbers at home, of course the emigrants have increased in still greater numbers, as for instance the Irish in America. There are no statistics available for the Oriental nations which date back far enough to give an equally good impression as to their increase in population; but since Japan and India have had regular enumerations, there appears an increase comparable with that of Europe.

A study of the relative rates of increase for periods of twenty-five years shows a very great

xi

XU acceleration in the last period. This is easily ac¬ counted for by a law which is a commonplace in all systems of political economy. It is well known that the increase of population is rapid in proportion to the abundance and accessibility of food supply. Practically there has been for the whole human race a tremendous change in this respect by the improve¬ ments in transportation of the last fifty years. On the one hand, surplus population can be moved from the crowded countries to new land where they can find food more than sufficient for their needs; on the other hand, countries populated beyond where their home supply can feed them can import the sur¬ plus food of the new agricultural countries, paying for it with the product of other activities. This is a condition that never existed before the modern application of steam to transportation. The pres¬ ent England and Belgium would have been impossi¬ ble a century ago.

How long can this movement continue? It has been the fashion, for a generation of political econo¬ mists, to pooh-pooh at Malthus and talk about the boundless possibilities of lands yet unknown, and of improved methods of cultivation, and the irriga¬ tion and reclamation of unproductive districts. But voices are beginning to be heard on the other side; within a month before these lines are written an estimate has appeared in print, based on present con¬ ditions and tendencies, which puts the time when the whole earth will be populated up to the limit of food supply at A. d. 2180. This estimate starts xm from the fact, which can be verified from statistics, that countries in the temperate zones, with land of average normal fertility, which have a population greater than a little below ioo to the square kilo¬ meter, or 250 to the English square mile, are im¬ porting food.*

It would seem that wherever this figure is ex¬ ceeded there are exceptional conditions; either there is, in a warm climate where the needs are fewer, a population on an alluvial plain, fertilized from other parts of the basin, as in Egypt and parts of India; or else, as in England and Belgium and parts of Germany, an industrial development which feeds the excess by exchange with agricultural countries.

It is of course evident that no country has reached the limit of possible food production, for three rea¬ sons: 1. In most countries all possible land is not used; some is idle in the shape of ornamental parks; some is held for speculation, or is exploited for pas¬ turage or superficial cultivation; some is capable of irrigation or reclamation. 2. The land that is under cultivation might produce more with more in¬ tensive processes. 3. Much of the land now under cultivation is devoted to the production of luxuries which add nothing to the actual food supply. It has been maintained that even England could feed herself if these three difficulties were removed.

* Of course reckoning by political divisions is a crude method; the real basis of division for natural economic group-units is the drainage basin; but in many cases political divisions correspond roughly to this natural basis, and in any case it is entirely impos¬ sible to obtain statistics except for political divisions.

xiv INTRODUCTION

It is not certain, however, that this estimate is justified; and it may be found that ioo to the square kilometer for the entire drainage basin, allowing due area for forests, the importance of which is now better understood, is not so far below the ultimate limit if any margin is to be allowed for the employ¬ ment of human energy in other activities than the mere provision of the bare necessities of life. This is not far from the present figure for France, which has of the leading countries relatively the least of exportation and importation, of emigration and im¬ migration, and the most of general wealth, intelli¬ gence, freedom from superstition and cant of all kinds, comfort and happiness; and seems to be con¬ tent to divide up its advantages among the present number of people, its population now being very nearly stationary.

Whatever the possibilities for prolonging the time, we must after all come back to the logical con¬ sequence of the two propositions of Malthus: the human race can increase in geometrical ratio (and in fact is doing so now) ; and the food supply can increase only in arithmetical ratio. The conse¬ quence is that some time there must be established a static condition, in which the race will be repro¬ duced only so fast as to keep its numbers at a constant figure, which, from all considerations of a higher kind, ought to be considerably below the number which can barely exist on the available food supply. Such a condition has never been the rule for any large number of the race. Our condition

INTRODUCTION xv

has always been a kinetic one; in the comparatively few cases of population to the limit of food supply, the adjustments have been violent, and after a war or famine the old movement is resumed. More¬ over, such cases have been due to lack of means of transportation or of information as to emigration possibilities; — lacks which are now fast disappear¬ ing, so that the period in which we are now living is kinetic to a degree hardly appreciated by the gen¬ eral reader. How many people know that the new state of Oklahoma had in 1890 a population of 60,000, in 1900, 400,000, and in 1910, 1,650,000? Equally startling figures are shown in the Canadian Northwest, and in the Argentine, South Africa, and Australia. All new land fit for agriculture is being eagerly explored and colonized, and if aerial navi¬ gation is used as it can be for exploration, before another generation there will be no corner of the earth’s surface which will not be thoroughly known and inventoried with its possibilities for production. There is no doubt that the time must come when the countries which now export food will be filled up to the point where they will need all they pro¬ duce for themselves, and can no longer supply the overpopulated countries at any price. If the latter continue their industrial development and conse¬ quently increase their population and dependence upon imported food, their distress will be something beyond all human experience; and it is none too soon for them to begin to set their houses in order against such a contingency.

XVI

There is only one thing they can do. Their pop¬ ulation must be kept down to the numbers which their land with the best management can support. This can be done by emigration so long as there is any place for it, but what then? Then the whole race must face the problem of how to limit its num¬ bers to the figures which can make the best use of the world’s natural resources. A study of the pos¬ sibilities of the static condition thus necessitated has never been attempted, so far as the writer is aware. The data for such a study are to be found in the approximations to static conditions which now exist in thickly populated countries, the phenomena being most noticeable in the life of our large cities.