Nature study by months

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Part I. FOB ELEMENTARY GBADES

BT

ARTHUR C. BOYDEN, A.M.

Bridobwateb, Mass., Nobmal School

BOSTON AND CHICAGO NEW ENGLAND PUBLISHING CO.

■ARVARD COLLEGe LIBRARY

GIFl OF

•itl6E ARTHUR PLIMPTtN

JANUARY 25, 1924

Copyright, 1898, By New England Publishing Co.

Be it mine to detect Thy hiding-place and unmask Thee. Be it mine to discover Thy beauty sleeping in the grass, Thy glory hidden in the dust.

Matheson.

Table Of Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

Introduction v-viii

I. September. — The Autumn Flowers — Insects

Chapter I. September

An appropriate opening of the year's work is through some story or poem tliat suggests the coming of autumn.

" Where has the summer gone ?

She was here a minute ago," etc.

" The world puts on its robes of glory now ; The very flowers are tinged with deeper dyes," etc.

IX)VEJOY*8 Nature in Verse, p. 188.

The Autumn Flowers.

The rich autumn flora preparing its abundant seeds is the most manifest fact of the season.

Flowers can be collected by the children from day to day, and the teacher can aid in their arrangement in such artistic ways as to beautify the schoolroom. These contributions will include both wild and cultivated flowers, which are renewed with fresh varieties as the season progresses. Children assist in the care of the bouquets, that the floral visitors may be thought of as regular members of the school sessions. Children may be encouraged to contribute potted plants of various kinds, to remain during the term.

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

u^l?

Beautiful surroundings directly* lead to that sympathy for natural objects which is the foundation for all true nature study. A little care in selecting plants having a variety of leaf and flower, as well as different habits of growth, will aid in extending this influence, by showing nature's manifold ways in doing her work.

In the morning talks let the children tell where they found the flowers growing, as a means of calling attention to their natural surroundings, and as a stimulus to the search for flowers in their homes. The attention should be called to the value of flowers in beautifying the country road or city park, so that the eyes will hereafter notice such things with a new interest, and a new feeling will stir the heart.

Lists of the flowers collected or recognized may be placed on the blackboard.

They serve to introduce the flowers by name to us, and help in fixing the names for future use. Affixing in some

Fig, 1.

SEPTEMBER.

way the color of the flowers aids in recalling the appearance as the eye runs over the names. If the list is continued into the late fall, the hardier flowers will be noticed, and an occasional reflowering of some spring plant may be found. All of these things keep the eyes on the watch, and the thoughts busy on plant life.

Among the more common will be the yellow mullein of the dry fields, the yellow and orange "butter-and-eggs" found along the roadsides, the brilliant gentians, and cardinal flower. The composite family will probably contribute the most specimens, — the small fall dandelion growing along the roadside, the purple asters, a variety of goldenrods, the white yurr^nv, eli themums, and sunflowers. It is t' best plan to use a new set of flowers in each advancing grade. Dana's How to Know the Wild Flowers will be found very valuable by the teacher in quickly determining the names and habits of the flowers as brought in by the children.

Work of the Flowers.

A simple way to bring out this truth with the youngest children is to have them trace by observation the life of a flower, — the growth of a separate flower-stem with green buds upon it, the gradual opening of the green leaves, the unfolding of the colored flower-leaves enclosing the stamens and pistils. The yellow powder (pollen) on the stamens shows that the flower is ripe, and the bees are busy getting

the honey.

Gradually the flower-leaves fade and fall off, the stamens soon follow their example, and the green fruit begins to appear. The fruit increases in size till it is ripe, often changing color; then it splits open, and the little seeds escape to the ground, to be ready to make new plants next spring. Thus, in simple form, the life-history of the plant is thought out by the child, and what he sees in one case he is led to find all about him in other plants. The collection of dry fruits containing seeds should be begun now to emphasize the thought.

On the back of the. fernleaves which the children gather are found the rows of little brown pockets, from which can be skaken the powdei- that will fall to the ground and prepare niew fern-plants. Even these plants, without any flowers, are doing the same work of preparation for new plants. Are there any other plants that do not have flowers ?

Fig, 3,

SEPTEMBER.

Colors of the Flowers.

To cultivate still further the appreciation of the beauty of the flowers, let the children select the colored papers that will match the colors of the leaves and flowers. These papers may be mounted (under the teacher's direction) on cardboard, to hang beside the flowers for the day. This impresses the thought of the variety of colors, and of the harmony of coloring in each plant. Children in the upper primary grades can aid in pressing some of the flowers, to be mounted on the cardboard with the colored papers beside them. These may hang in the room for a time, by the list of flowers, as another means of interesting the children in the local flora.

Some literary selection will aid in impressing this truth of beauty of the flowers in autumn.

The Work of the Different Parts,

In the second and third years the parts of the flower can be examined more carefully for the purpose of expanding the truth already gained. Garden nasturtiums are easily obtained in such numbers that each child may have one to examine. As the first exercise, he should be encouraged to tell just what he sees as he sees it. He will not report the facts in the expected order, but slight guidance will direct him toward the important points, and names may be given as needed (also written on the board in connection with a sketch). In the nasturtium the following may be observed: A yellow cup holds the other parts of the flower. It is cut into five-pointed parts (sepals), and has a long yellow spur on the under side. There are five large orange (?) flower leaves (petals) set in the cup. Three of them have long stems, and the same three have fringes on the inside ; the other two

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

have long dark lines pointing down into the spur. By careful search eight stamens can be counted in the cup, each with a thick part on the end. Some are long and some are short. Probably on one only will be found the powder

(pollen), which can be rubbed off with the finger; in the others it is not ripe. In the middle is found another stemlike part (pistil), with no thick part on the end.

After the children have told all they can see and think, use a few moments to think of the use of the parts, — the cup, to hold the other parts; the spur, to hold the honey for the bees and butterflies (if not seen, suggest the watching of insects on a bed of nasturtiums). The bright colors attract them, and the dark lines point to the honey.

At another lesson review the observations by teaching the children to use the new names in oral sentences. A few of the best may be written on the board for reading or copying.

Still another language exercise may be conducted by giving the pupils a new flower, which they are to describe, using the new names of the parts. Meantime the children will be looking for these same parts in many flowers which they collect, and a little guidance will lead them to use the names as they talk about the flowers.

Fig, 4.

By bringing in the flowers at different stages, the steps in forming the seeds can be noticed, — the ripening stamens ; the withering sepals, petals, and stamens; the lengthening pistil, with the fruit forming at its base ; the final formation of the three-parted fruit, with its seeds. Another series of language exercises will naturally follow, and specimens of ripening fruits will be collected.

In the third year the toad flax, or " butter-and-eggs," is another flower which can be examined on the same plan, and it can be sketched and colored. More extended descriptions can be written from lists of words, or from a series of questions. The latter serve somewhat as a guide in the formation of the sentences. These papers will show the teacher what further observation or drill is required. Dictation exercises are excellent means of drilling on specific language points.

In the fourth year a more careful study of the flower and its development into fruit is desirable. If the nasturtium is used, the following facts will be found; but the same plan may be used for any available flower. The calyx is distinguished, and the children are asked to tell as many facts as they can observe (the calyx is a cup, five parts with sharp points, sepals ; three upper sepals extend into a spur ; all are yellowish). The corolla is distinguished, and studied in the same manner (five colored petals, attached to the cup, alternating with the sepals, two in one set, three in the other, the latter fringed and with stems). The stamens are found and counted, their length noted, the anthers described, and particular attention is paid to the one that has ripened pollen on it. The pistil is separated from the stamens, and its position noted in the middle of the flower. The use of the calyx in holding the other parts and in protecting them in the bud is thought out ; the bright-colored flower leaves, with their odor and honey, are seen to attiact the insects ; the stamens produce

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

the pollen, which is carried by the bees to the pistils of other flowers ; and the pistil will be seen to produce the fruit. The teacher will need to tell simply the work of the bees in carrying pollen from one flower to another, and its work in forming the fruit. — (Bergen's Botany^ Chapter XVIII.)

A simple outline written on the board will serve as a basis for the language paper on a new flower, a paragraph being written on each : —

Calyx — sepals.

Corolla — petals.

Stamens — anthers — pollen.

Pistil —

A short oral exercise preceding the paper will give an example of the plan of description.

The changes in the flowers will be traced, and particular attention given to the pistil ; it increases in length ; three branches are distinctly seen, on the tip of which the pollen falls as brought by the bees, while the ovary expands into a three-parted fruit; finally the upper part of the pistil dies, and only the fmit is left with its seeds.

For this a subject may be selected as the basis of the language paper — " How a Flower Changes into a Fruit," or "The Story of a Flower." ^1^^ J^ ^ This study is of special

' value when it stimulates

ng:. 5. to the finding of other

flowers that are changing in the same manner, and thus a truth of nature is discovered. A collection of these fruits is a natural consequence of the interest that has been stirred, and should be begun early in the season.

SEPTEMBER.

IlrSJSCTS AND FLOWERS,

The children should be encouraged to watch the insects that visit the flowers; and quite a list may be made — bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, ants, etc. A more careful watching may tell how they get the honey from the flowers, — a butter-

Fig. 6.

fly kept under glass on some flowers may show his long, spiral tongue, by which he reaches down into the deep tube flowers ; or flowers near the open window will invite insects, and their movements may be watched. Their success or failure in reaching the sweets may be apparent, and the reason is at once sought. The teacher may supplement the obseiTation by telling the story of some insects and the flowers.

10 NATITBB STUDY BY MONTHS.

** Buzz I buzz I buzz I

This is the song of the bee.

His legs are of yellow, A jolly good fellow, And yet a great worker is he.*'

For the rest of this attractive poem see Lovejoy's Nature in Verae^ p. 140. Other appropriate poems may be found in The Fairyland of Flowers. The myth of Cly tie (the sunflower) teaches a beautiful truth of nature.

The composites are a family of plants in which many small ray and tube flowers are arranged together as if in one large flower. "The flowers thus joining forces. make a much braver show than they would if they were scattered, and are thus more likely to attract insects. The chance of gathering honey from so many flowers at once, instead of having to roam here and there in search of it, is greatly appreciated by insects; and their visits are more likely to be effectual, since the chances are that one alighting will touch many florets. No wonder, therefore, that * composite flowers,' as these are called, are a very wide-spread and successful family." — Har- DiNGE, Chapter X.

While this is an intricate family to study botanically, yet its simplest lesson is a truth appreciated by the children. This is autumn's richest family in color and in number of seeds, a natural closing of the flower year. " Goldenrod " (Love joy, p. 194).

How lusECTS Live.

CowPBA's Cricket,

The month of September is rich in certain kinds of insect life, and the preparation for winter is alreadjr beginning.

SEPTEMBER.

Crickets are among the best insects to keep in the schoolroom for the observation of life habits. Place some earth and sod in the bottom of a large fruit-jar, moisten occasionally, and cover the top with mosquito netting. Large and small crickets will live contentedly during the fall by feeding them on bits of fresh apple or clover-leaves, from time to time.

The following is a simple outline for the teacher to keep in mind during the observation of the habits of insects by the children, —

Where do they live? How do they protect themselves from the birds and other enemies? Will their color help hide them, or make them more easily seen?

How do they move about? Which do they use the more, legs or wings ? How fast or how far can they move ?

How do they get their food and eat it? Do they injure our crops? When are they most active in getting food?

How do they breathe ? How do they make their calls to one another?

Where do they lay their eggs ? How do they do it ? How do the young grow ?

The crickets will answer all these questions for the children if they are patiently watched. They are found under stones and boards, often in little depressions in the ground ;

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

in the jar they crawl into dark places. Being of a dark color they easily escape notice, but at a moment's warning are ready to run or leap away. Their wings are not very large, because they do not use them as much as many insects. They will eat the food given them, and show the mouth parts as they use them, — lips, jaws, and helping parts ; they will use their feelera on each other as if talking; the male will chirp by rubbing one outer wing on the other, and the female will lay eggs in the ground by the long egg-tube ; the hind rings of the body will beat as the insects breathe ; in fact, all the questions that curiosity can ask may be answered. By keeping the jar of soil till spring the eggs will hatch out, and the young wingless crickets can be watched as they grow. Apple and clover can be used for food as before. There are some fall caterpillars that can be kept in " caterpillar cages," with earth and leaves for food ; tliQ eating habits and the changes into cocoons are very interesting. In the spring, from these, and other cocoons that have been collected, the butterflies or moths will emerge, and

add another stage to the life-history. Comstock's Insect Lives gives full directions for the care of insects. Weed's Life Histories of Insects is very helpful in supplying information to teachers.

Fig, 8.

OCTOBER. 13

Chapter II. October

Natural Phenomena.

The morning talk is the most appropriate time for the weather reports, and for the arranging of the pictorial weather chart. Different designs are in common use by teachers, and are thoroughly enjoyed by the children. The facts observed each day are of little value in themselves, but are used to lead to thoughts of the gradual change that is taking place, — the shorter days, sun lower at noon, cooler winds, early frosts. Consequently the changes in plant and animal life.

The Life of the Leaves.

The beautiful foliage of October suggests attractive material for the children. Some interesting poem adapted to the grade will serve as a pleasant introduction: —

" * Come little leaves,' said the wind one day, *Come over the meadows with me and play,**' etc.

" * 1*11 tell you how the leaves come down,' The great tree to his children said," etc.

" October gave a party ; The leaves by hundreds came," etc.

For the remainder of each poem see Lovejoy's Nature in Verse,

Whittier's Indian Summer and Longfellow's Autumn are among the many selections that are appropriate to older grades.

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

Autumn Lsaves,

The thoughts of beauty can best be impressed through the collections of colored leaves made by the children. The leaves can be pressed and mounted to illustrate different points. These mounts, with the names attached, may be arranged about the room over the blackboards, for the purpose of helping the cluldreu recognize the differ- •%f \ f ^^^ trees by means of their leaves.

^TjL ^"^^^ A simple study of the colors

» V 1 /^ » may accompany this work by

selection of colored papers to match the leaves ; these may be mounted beside the leaves.

The number and gradation of the different colors will be seen; also some points of harmony of colors can be taught in the older grades. All of this color work is to be used to impress the thought of the rich beauty of the autumn foliage.

Mounts of individual colors may be made to impress the prominent colors ; e.g., yellow leaves of different trees, red leaves (** crimson," "scarlet "), orange leaves, purple leaves, etc. Guard against poison ivy (Fig. 9), with its three brilliant leaflets, and the poison sumach, " dogwood," with its nine leaflets. These plants are so brilliant in foliage thiat

GCTOBBB. 15

they attract collectors, hence it is wise to limit the coUectionsi to the common trees. Another set of mounts can be made to illustrate the gradation of colors in the same kind of leaves ; e.g., the ash changes from violet through brown, red, orange, to yellow. '^ The first coloration is usually seen at the veins of the leaf, extending outwardly until the whole is tinted. Sometimes it appears in spots, like drops of blood upon the green surface. The gradations of autumn tints are from dark to lighter hues." There is a helpful chapter on "autumn woods " in Flagg's A Year among the Tree9.

The Life-History of Leaves,

Begin with the leaves as they are growing on a twig, trace the leaf from the main stem to which it is attached, through the stem or petiole into the midrib and veins, even to the margin of the blade. As the children trace the parts, let them describe what they find at each step. They can think of this as the co.urse of the sap as it comes up from the roots to the leaves, and after it has been prepared in the sun-exposed leaves it wili return by the same course into the parts of the tree that need it. The expansion of the petiole at its base enables it to cling firmly to the stem; the strength of the attachment is shown by carefully pulling the leaf from its place. The shape and color of the petiole will be noticed, also the branching of the midrib into the veins. These should be thought of as the framework of the leaf, giving it strength as it is held out in the sunlight. By scraping off the skin from a thick leaf like a plantain, the softer green pulp may be found between the veins. Look for the little hairs on th^ upper or under side of the blade ; these hairs often serve to hold drops of moisture.

This observation of the leaf will prepare directly for the

16 NATUHE STUDY BY MONTHS.

pictorial drawing of one or more leaves. In this drawing particular attention will be given to the shape and margin of the blade, for the purpose of impressing the thought of the graceful curves that give beauty to the leaf. After this exercise the sketch of a leaf may be placed on the board, with the names of the terms written below as a spelling exercise. These words may then form the basis of a language paper in which the words are incorporated in descriptive sentences.

The next step in the life of the leaves is the change in color, which can be traced until all the green color has disappeared. In a general way, this may be thought of as the ripening of the leaves as they finish their year's work upon the tree. [The valuable materials of the leaves have been absorbed by the branches and roots, to be used again the following spring. The colors depend merely on the changes that accompany the withdrawal of the material from the tissues of the leaf. Frost perhaps hastens this breaking up, but it is not the cause of it. — Bergen's Botany^ Chapter XII.]

Falling of the Leaves.

The third step to notice is the falling of the

leaves to the ground after they are fully ripe.

Notice which trees drop their leaves early, e.g.,

ash and horse-chestnut; those that follow in order,

— a list on the board encourages the observation ;

those that retain their brown leaves into the win-

Fig. \o, ^r, e.g., certain oaks. The leaves fall gently, one

at a time, from the trees. The reason for this can

be seen in the smooth face across the end of the petiole of the

ripe leaf. This is nature's preparation for the winter, as

OCTOBER.

the load of heavy leaves would be too severe a strain on the branches during the winter storms ; also, the trees need a period of rest. [As the material is withdrawn from the leaf, a layer of flat cork cells is built across the petiole ; this prevents any wound to the tree as the leaf falls.] The attention should be called to the value of the dead leaves on the ground, covering up the seeds, and gradually decaying to enrich the earth.

These thoughts impress the idea of adaptation in nature to each season of the year.

The final step at present is seen in the buds, which are formed on the end and sides of the stem.

Tliese are the product of the summer's work, and contain the leaves or flowers of the spring growth. The covering of scales, together with any pitchy substance, protects the buds from winter cold and moisture. The position of the buds tells where the new lea^ves and branches will appear. In the spring this work is naturally continued by the study of the swelling and opening buds. This will complete the cycle of leaf history.

Fig. 12a. Veining ot Leaves, [Maple for opposite budsJ]

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

A drawing of the bare twig will lead to the careful observation of the position, form, and relative size of the^ buds. Little booklets may be made in the upper primary grades, which will include the mounts of colored leaves, the drawings, the copied memory gems, and the descriptive language exercises. An appropriate cover may have for its title, "The Story of the Leaves."

Differences in Leaves. (fourth year.)

The arrangement of leaves on the branch, and the plan of veining (Fig, 11), as determining the shape of the leaf, should be used to teach a principle of adaptation in plant life. Each leaf is placed so as to get air and sunlight for its growth.

One tree is studied at a time. The elm illustrates a close alternate arrangement of leaves. The leaves are placed on the branch in a spiral line, with large and small leaves so mingled as to give each its full exposure. Often the individual Leaves seem to have turned in such a way as to adapt

Fig. lib, Veining of Leaves. [Elm /or alternate buds.]

OCTOBER. 19

themselves more p^ectly to ty& plan. Each leaf has a midrib, and veins arranged like the parts of a feather ; hence tlie name, "feather-veined leaf" (Fig, 12). Each main vein extends into a tooth on the margin of the leaf, and a careful examination of the curves of these teeth reveals the beauty of outline. The petiole of each leaf is short and thick, the two sides of the blada are far from equal, and no two leaves are just alike. This inequality in the details of the same plan gives another element of beauty to the tree.

Fig. 12. Oak, Beech, Birch, and Chestnut. [Back side of leaf for ri6.]

After this preliminary observation the children are ready for the drawing of the twig to show the points more carefully. This drawing is best done by a series of directions which call for careful observation at each step. The artistic selection and placing of the specimen is of prime importance ; in doing thi^ each child is encouraged to act for himself. A mounted twig of the colored leaves may accompany the drawing-sheet, or it may be mounted on the same sheet. A sketch on the board with the terms written underneath is a good

NATURE STUDY BY MONTHS.

prepamtion for the final description, as it gives opportunity for a spelling-drill previous to the writing. These exercises should give all possible scope to originality of expression. Often children like to make a sketch as an introduction to the paper.

The simple thought of the adaptation of this arrangement of leaves is impressed by collecting other illustrations of alternate feather-veined leaves; e.g., apple, birch, oak, beech, and chestnut. Some of these may be mounted to make a class album of autumn leaves.

The maples illustrate an opposite arrangement of the leaves on the branch, with a different spiral from that of the elm.

The large and small leaves also are differently placed, but are

OCTOBER. 21

arranged to accomplish the same purpose. The five main veins extend from the petiole into the same number of pointed lobes, each of which has its feather-vein plan and teeth with their beautiful curves. The principal veins resemble the palm of the hand and fingers in arrangement, hence the name "palmate-veined leaf." The petioles are longer than those of the elm, and varj^ in length according to the size of the leaf. The two parts of a leaf are more nearly equal than in the elm leaf, but by folding we see that the parts do not exactly coincide. This arrangement of leaves should be seen to be as appropriate for the maple as was the alternate arrangements for the elm, and the plan of veining is suited to a broad leaf. By trying to place the maple leaves on an elm arrangement, and vice versa^ the wisdom of each plan will be appreciated. (Bergen, Botany^ Chapter X.)

In a similar manner to the elm follows the mounting, drawing, and description. The buttonwood (sycamore), currant, grape, and varieties of maple, are further examples. The Virginia creeper and horse-chestnut illustrate the compound arrangement of the same plan; each leaflet is separated from the others on the different veins.

The hickories (shellbark, pignut) and walnuts (butternut) illustrate the compound leaf based on the feather- veined plan (Fig. 14). The position of the bud determines how much is one leaf. The leaflets are opposite, as if made by placing a small blade about each vein, while each leaflet, resembles a feather-veined leaf with a very short petiole. This plan furnishes large leaves cut apart to allow circulation of air and sunlight through the foliage. Imagine elm or oak leaves on these branches, and we shall appreciate the fitness of nature's plan. Drawings and descriptions may follow as before, and the leaves suggest designs for the more artistic exercises.