The Mississippi valley, and prehistoric events: giving an account of the original formation and early condition of the great valley; of its vegetable and animal life; of its first inhabitants, the mound builders, its mineral treasures and agricultural developments. All from authentic sources

Preface

The object of this book is to supply the means of acquiring a clear idea of the Origin, Extent, Resources, and Development of the Mississippi Valley. No work before the public embraces this information.

Can a subject apparently so familiar in its general features as the development of the Valley of the Mississippi be clothed with fresh interest? A brilliant and durable prosperity must have an extraoidinary cause ; and a region that has reacted with such happy eifect on the character and destinies of a great nation must be worthy of close study. That study will show that the Valley is onl}^ beginning to make itself felt in the country and the world, that its natural advantages are wholly unequaled by any section of the globe, and that its People and Institutions are equally superior.

Scientific studies on its original formation have been principally confined to learned books. Presented in a condensed and popular form, they will be found of fascinating interest; while a complete view of its surface features, its vast area, its variety of climate and soil, its agricultural and mineral resources, its rivers, lakes, and plains, and wide expanding rim, with the peculiar course and significance of its human history, show it to be the grandest and most desirable region in the world. It is to be a mighty element in a wonderful Future. The works of the Mound Builders, before authentic history began, furnish evidence that it was

S 1' li K i' ACE.

even then the abode of a numerous and prosperous people, and nourished one of the Primitive Civilizations of the world. The publisher feels justified in saying that in all the range of English literature no publication can be found embodying so many valuable and interesting facts, collected from reliable scientific investigators and from the remains of antiquity, presented in a manner so pleasing, and, at the same time, free from dry and tedious details. It can not fail to please all friends of literature and science.

Introduction

Within the hist half centuiy the world has been passing through changes of a new and striking kind. Many tendencies that had been long ac(|uiring strength in secret, have suddenly come to the surface and taken control of life and thought ; directness and force, leading to results of world-wide importance such as no previous period could show, have become characteristic of most displa3^s of energy in practical fields, and made the general situation for mankind at hirge extremely different. It reminds us of the flowering time of the plant when new parts are suddenly unfolded, new purposes and powers revealed, and all its vital energies concentrated on the final work of maturing the fruit.

Science is one of the chief factors in this suddenly quickened progress. It has learned to make its studies at once minute, comprehensive, and accurate. By carefully examining every particular, putting all the facts together to learn the significance of the whole, and then returning to a consideration of the relation of the parts to the general result, it seems to lay iKire the secrets of nature. There are few things which it appears capable of concealing from an inquiry so searching, and the practical and the mental worlds seem to share about equally in the grand discoveries. The earth and the history of man have acquired a new meaninof, and are invested with srreater interest.

Tracing effects back to causes, science finds conclusive proof of what before could only be dimly suspected, that

8 I N T K O D U C T I O N .

all things are ])Oiin(] together iu a true unity ; that the solid earth has passed through a succession of changes as orderly as the stages of growth in a plant or an animal, each change contributing to the general advance toward a foreseen end. It is continually finding new evidence that the earth was fitted up with reference to human history ; and history is found to show more clearly the more carefully it is studied, that it has been guided with reference to the structure and varying resources of different regions of the earth.

The physical structure of Europe has exerted immense influence on civilization, ancient and modern ; the wonderful effect of the peculiar resources and position of England on its people and the world is well known. The American continent as a whole, the transfer of European institutions to it and their subsequent re-action on development in Europe, also illustrate this law. The Mississippi Valley is in itself a case strongly in point, and in some peculiar ways.

Its grand outlines were drawn in the earliest geological times ; it was constructed with great simplicity throughout its general surface, but very elaborately on its borders, where all the resources of volcanic force, of heat and chemical activity were taxed to enrich it with various treasures ; glaciers of almost continental magnitude were employed to provide it with a rich, deep soil ; it has an unrivaled location and its system of water-ways gives it a niagnifieent unity. Nature was lavish of her best, and did not change her mood from first to last.

It is interesting and significant to note how carefully the course of human history was guided to preserve this fortunate Valley from permanent occupation by any people whose genius and stage of development rendered them unfit to be its heirs. The primitive civilization of the Mound Builders • was broken up before it became too strong, being, probably, more fully developed in Central America and Mexico ; the

INTRODUCTION. i)

Indians were no true owners since they sought little bnt its game and wild fruits, and soon gave v/ny to a superior race ; the Spaniards flitted across the Lower Valley or along its coasts, and disappeared, overwhelmed in the misfortunes produced by their own violence ; the French soldier or priest was soon lost to view under the forests, or maintained a precarious and uninfluential foothold at a few points along the rivers ; and the Spanish, French, and English governments intrigued in vain with Indians and colonists to establish their control over it in later years.

But there was a people to whom the Valley took kindly, among whom were the germs of thouglit and character which could produce the best institutions and make the wisest nse of its great resources. They wandered across the eastern mountains, under the friendly shelter of the tall forests, and felt themselves at home. Though the Indian swung his tomahawk and raised the war-whoop, nature smiled on them. They had no thought of retreat, though the settler must be warrior as well as farmer for almost a generation. The trees fell before his axe, and gradually the o-rain fields waved o-reen and gold in the summer breeze — rough homes of peace and plenty multiplied over the whole vast region ; the rudeness and vices of the border soon gave place to the well-settled order of old communities ; while the freeman found, himself nowhere so free, the business man was nowhere so prosperous, and the State, the school, the church, the press were nowhere so flourishing.

Here was ample room to show that unrestricted political freedom does not necessarily lead to disorder ; that business and trade are governed by laws of their own, which may correct the disturbances of personal ambition ; and that a loose society, with little pressure but its own choice, may prefer to establish and maintain the best institutions of the hiirhest civilization. The time had come for such lessons to

10 INTRODUCTION.

be very effective. Presently England gave most of her colonies equal freedom, and the tension of authority among the nations of the Old World has long been giving way.

Thus we find the first and the last parts of the Valley's history unified. A thread of intention connects its geology with the latest develojDments in the history of its enterprising inhabitants, and the whole forms a prophecy of the future of no small interest. Accumulated causes, in our day, hurry into effects ; industrial and commercial fore; s have become immense — in the Valley especial!}' — and arc daily gathering strength, and the surprises of the past will sink into insio-nificance before those of the near future.

The problems of liberty and national unity have been solved already and completely by the help of the Valley. But these were only preliminary questions-. How shall these boundless resources be so used that all classes of the people shall be prosperous ? How shall the great questions of industry, finance, and commerce be settled so that injustice shall he done to none? Nature here furnishes the means to any desired extent ; it is the true adjustment that is required ; the field is roomy, the forces are fairly free to move. Notwithstanding many seeming contradictions, man and nature, here at least, are equally well meaning, on the whole, and the harmonizing law of relations and interests is a(-tive and strong. We may therefore believe that the beneficent re-action of the Great Valley on the welfare of the nation has only begun.

COISTTEISTTS

Part First. The Ancient Histoey Op The Mississippi Yalley

AND OP THE MOUND BUILDERS, AS RELATED

BY SOIENOE.

True Science dates from the Times of Columbus — The difficulties met in searching for Sound Principles and Methods — The Caution and Precision now employed by men of Science.

Chapter I. How Nature Formed The Great Valley 33

The Forces employed by Nature have Written their History in the Rocks — The Earth originally a Molten Fiery Mass, whicli gradually cooled — The immense Forces proceeding from Contraction — How- Continents were outlined, their Parts raised and Mountains elevated —The Outlining of the Great Valley.

CHAPTER 11.

HOW ROCKS ARE MADE AND HOW THEIR ''STORY" IS READ. 41

The Four Geological "Times" and Classes of Rocks — Primordial Time and Azoic Rocks, i. e., without Life — Paleozoic Rocks containing Ancient Forms of Life — Mesozoic Rocks containing Medireval or Middle Forms of Life — Cenozoic Rocks showing Recent Forms of Life — The Great Coal-making Period — The Great Mountain-making Periods.

(li)

12 CO Is TENT S .

CHAPTER in.

HOW NATURE FINISHED THE VALLEY AND PREPARED IT

FOR MAN.

The Tertiary Period preceding the Age of Man— The Qiiaternary, or Recent Period, including the Age of Man — The Glacial Period, or the Age of Ice— The Drift it formed, and how it was distributed — The Champlain Period and draining of the Valley— The Vegetable Mould gradually produced completes the Work.

CHAPTER IV.

VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE — ^ITS ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 55

The wonderful Skill and Intelligence of the Life Force— How did it Originate, and How was it Propagated? — Various Theories — Similarities and Difterences in Animal atid Vegetable Forms of Life.

CHAPTER V.

VEGETATION IN THE VALLEY, ANCIENT AND MODERN 63

The two great Classes of Vegetable Forms — Vegetable Life probably preceded Animal Life — The first known Forms — The small number of Early Forms preserved— The Forests of the Coal Period — Vegetation after the Coal Period— Forest Trees after the Mountains were raised.

CHAPTER VI.

ANIMAL LIFE IN THE VALLEY, ANCIENT AND MODERN 70

The Five great Divisions of Animal Life — Most Ancient Forms — Life in the Palasozoic Rocks — Gradual introduction of Higher Forms — No Animal with Lungs belore the Coal Period — Probable reason — Life after the Coal Period in Mesozoic Time— More Recent Animals — Man the Ideal Animal.

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE FINISHED VALLEY = 81

The Great River and its Principal Branches — The Subordinate Rivers and their Basins — The Gulf Slope — The Prairies and their Origin — General Relations within and without — The Readiness with which it gives up its vast Treasures.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE MINERAL TREASURES OF THE VALLEY 89

The Causes that produced its Extensive Deposits of useful Minerals — Every Geological Age worked well for the Valley — Iron Deposits in the Primitive Rock — In Later Formations — Fine Qi^iality and favorable Distribution — Copper-bearing Rocks — Lead of Lower Silurian Rocks — Building Stone — Salt and its Origin — Petroleum — Extraordinary Supply of Coal.

CHAPTER IX.

AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES OF THE VALLEY 97

Adaptation of the Valley to a vast Development of Commerce and Manufactures— However great in other respects, ^Agriculture will always Lead — The remarkable Q^ialities of the Soil — The Climate and Rainfall of different Sections — Comparison of Mississippi Valley with Russia and the Valley of the Amazon — Points of Superiority to every other Region.

CHAPTER X.

THE MOUND BUILDERS AND THE FIRST MEN IN THE

VALLEY 113

The Champlain Period and huge Animals — Traces of Man in connection with the Mastodon — Men in tlie Valley as early as in Europe — Where did they come from? — Unlikeness to any Old World Race — The Mounds in the Valley — The conclusion that the people who made them had an Organized Government and Institutions, unavoidable.

14 C O X T E X T S

CHAPTER XI.

THE LABORS OF THE MOUND BUILDERS..... H'?

The great number of the Mounds— Mounds classed as Fortifications, Temples. Altars, Sepulchres, etc— Careful Study of them by Men o: Science— Number and Character of Military Enclosures— Fort Hill and Fort Ancient, Ohio— Temple Mounds and Enclosures— Works at Newark. Ohio— Cahokia and Seltzertown Mounds— Altars of Sacrifice— Burial Mounds— Mounds not made by Indians.

CHAPTER XII.

THE CHARACTER OF THE MOUND BUILDERS AND THEIR

INSTITUTIONS 133

Mental Q^ialities as shown by their Skulls — Their Physical Qiialities— Evidences of a Settled Government — Their numbers and Proof that they were Agriculturists — Military and Mathematical Knowledge — Their Art Remains indicate considerable Advancement — The great Difficulties they had to overcome in Industry and Art— Their Religious Institutions — Proofs of Sun Worship— Of Human Sacrifices — Their Priesthood — Evidences of Connection with Central America and Mexico — Sudden Disappearance- Conclusions.

PART SECOND, i-HE INDIAN TBIBES AND EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT or THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

CHAPTER I.

THE WILD HUNTERS OF THE VALLEY 155

Indians totally different from Mound Builders— Their habits, military and political organization— Comparison of Brain with Mound Builders and Europeans— Difficulty of accepting Civilization, and its Causes— Their manly and childish Q^ialities— Unhappy effect of contact with Civilized Races— Limited Success of Indian Confederations— Their Origin— Inferences from Language— No Traces of former hij^her culture or mixture of Races.

Chapter II. Discovery And Exploration By The Spaniards 1g7

Character of Spanish Conquests of the Sixteenth Century— They were Religious Crusades— Their Unsparing Cruelty— DeSoto's Expedition.

Chapter III. The French In North America In The Seventeenth

CENTURY.

,175

The Modern Tone of their Missions and Conquests— Marquette and joliet— The great Vigor and Misfortunes of La Salle— Bienville at the Mouth of the Mississippi.

CHAPTER IV. ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS IN THE VALLEY IN THE EIGH- TEENTH CENTURY 18a

The Aims of English Settlers different from those of Spanish and French — English Traders and Colonists — Cause of Indian HostiUty to them — Contest of English and French for the Possession of the Valley.

CHAPTER V. THE Indian's defence of his hunting grounds

AGAINST THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH 191

The Massacre of the Natchez— The Chickasaws and Choctaws Successfully Resist the French — English Policy in the South Against the French — Indians Assist the French in the Upper Valley — Pontiac's Designs and their Failure.

Chapter VI. The Indians Make War On The American Pioneers.200

Indian Titles to the Valley — Purchases by the English and Colonial Authorities — English Policy during the Revolution — Courage of Early Settlers — Bloody Contest during the War in Kentucky and Tennessee — Success of Gen.. George Rogers Clarke — Struggle of Indians for Northwest Territory — St. Clair's Defeat — Wayne's Victory.

Chapter VII. Tecumseh And His Allies 209

Fifteen Years Peace — Character and Purposes of Tecumseh — His Organization in the North— His Visit to the Creeks— The War of 1812— The Indians in the English Armies — Fearful Massacres North and South — Death of Tecumseh— Gen. Jackson and the Creeks — Final Subjugation of the Indians — Indian Policy and Later Contests.

C O NT P: N T S . 17

CHAPTER virr.

THE HEROIC PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT 222

Daniel Boone and his Companions — The First Settlers in Tennessee — The Spread of Settlement in Kentucky — Incidents of the War in Kentucky— The Brave Girl— The Young Hero— The Prudent Boys— The Two Wounded Men — The Number of Settlers in 1795.

Chapter IX. Wholesale Settlement Under Difficulties 239

The Two Heroic States— Settlement of Ohio and the Northwest— Settlement in the Lower Valley— Population in iSoo— The Situation in 1812— Sudden Diffusion of Settlement after the War— Transportation on the Rivers— Social Habits in i3i6— Population in 1820.'';"

Chapter X. The Steamboat Era 250

The Isolation of the Valley and Want of Markets in Early Times— Great Improvement about 1820 on Introduction of Steamboats— Gain of Settlers in 1830— The Southern Valley— Vast Immigration between 1830 and 1850— Need of a new Carrying Agent.

Chapter XI. The Railroad Era 257

The Difficulty of Building Railways before 1850— California Gold and the Extension of Railroads— Transfer of population from the East to the West— Increase of Population between 1850 and i860.

Chapter XII. Constitutional Beginnings By The Early Settlers.263

The Sturdy Character of the American Colonist— Fortunate Escape of the Valley from Spanish, French and English Rule— Miscarriage of Proprietary Companies in Early Settlements — Significance of the Reason— 'Articles of Association" of Wautauga Settlement— County Organizations in Kentucky and Tennessee— The " State of Franklin"— Its History Illustrates American Character— Foreign Intrigues in the Valley.

IS CONTENTS.

Chapter XIII. The Constitutional System For Creating New States 274

The "Ordinance of 17S7" — It becomes a virtual Territorial Constitution — Its Wise Provisions — The Constitution of the United States as a Definition of State and Popular Rights — Liberal Interpretation of Theory in Practice.

Chapter XIV. State Constitutions 292

History of the Organization of each Territory and State in the Valley — Special Features of each State Constitution detailed — The Features Common to all the States — Summary of Results.

Chapter XV. Nationality Of Emigrants To The Valley, And Their

ORIGINAL CHARACTER 320

Immigrants from the Atlantic States in Different Periods — Their Enterprise and Intelligence — Immigrants from the British Isles — They are Branches from our own Stock — Immigrants from Northern and Central Europe — The readiness with which they '"Fall into Line" — The French Settlers in the Valley.

Chapter XVI. The Pioneers Of Kentucky And Tennessee 325

Their bold and hardy Qiialities — The combination of the wi.'y Hunter and the practical Farmer in them — The Independence and self-assertion acquired — The influence of these qualities on the later History of the Valley — They furnish a leading Type of Character.

Chapter XVII. New England In The West 333

The thoughtful, logical and enterprising character of the New England Tvpe of Americans — Long isolation and much hardship did not injure, hut improved the Type— What the Yankee lost and what he gained in the woods and prairies of the West — The Undertone thus given to Western Habits and Institutions— The later New Englander, what he gave and what he received.

Chapter XVIII. The Southern Planter In The Valley 339

The peculiar character of Pioneer Life in the Southern Valley — The social qualities and intelligence promoted — The Master, the Servant, the Gentleman, and the American Citizen in the Southern Valley.

Chapter XIX. Foreign Immigrants As American Citizens 346

The Foreign elements at different Periods — The readiness with which they caught the American Spirit — Liberalizing influence of the Foreign Element of the Population — The Fusion or combined results of all these elements of character in the Valley.

Chapter XX. Educational Beginnings In The Valley 352

Origin and Progress of Popular Education in Europe and the Eastern States — Early Embarrassments to Common Schools in the Valley — The eager interest soon displayed — Great and intelligent development from 1850 to i860— Newspapers and Churches.

Chapter XXI. Industrial Progress To 1860 362

Early Manufactures and their steady increase — Progress of Commerce and Trade — Agricultural beginnings — Progress limited only by capacity of markets — Investment of Capital and production of wealth in different periods.

CHAPTER XXII. THE VALLEY IN I 86o 367

Review of favorable features of Valley History to i860 — The disadvantages from industrial and political opposition between the two sections— Neither the River nor Railway systems could overcome them — Influence of these two systems on the Civil War.

CHAPTER XXIIL

THE CONFLICT AND ITS LESSONS 374

Military Strategy and the Railroads — Operations on the Rivers — Other lines of defence and attack — Conquest of principal lines decides the War — How the Valley tends to preserve the unity of the whole country.

Chapter III. The Upper Valley During The War 406

Causes of the Uninterrupted Development of the Upper Valley During the War — The East and West Railroad System — Agricultural Machinery, Immigration, and Circulation of Money — Its Products find Excellent Markets — A fine Situation.

Chapter IV. The New Starting Point 410

The Fresh Impulses Furnished to Enterprise — A Hopeful Energy Create;^ Resources — The Era of Results Succeeds the Era of Beginnings — The Benefits and Evils Resulting from the War.

Chapter V. Vast Extension Of The Railway System 416

Completion of the Pacific Railroad— Rapid Development of the Western Valley — Immense increase of Business multiplies Shorter Roads and completes Long Routes — Advantages of the Railroad Furor — Tiie Sudden Reaction.

Chapter VI. Production Of Mineral Wealth In The New Era.. .434

Increase of Iron Production in the Valley — Consumption of Iron and Steel — Progress of Coal Mining — Significance of these Facts — Petroleum, Copper and Salt — Precious Metals on the Rocky Mountain Bordvir in 1872 — Progress and General Probabilities.

Chapter VII. Rapid Growth Of Manufactures

.428

Value of Railroads in Diffusing Industries and Developing the Capacities of every Region — Comparison of Earlier and Later Statistics of Manufactures— Great Relative Growth in the Center of the Country.

Chapter VIII. The Transfer Of Industries To The Valley 432

It is Promoted by Ready Access to Material— By the Nearness of Purchasers—By the Large Margin of Profit— Indications of Transl'er as a Fact— Growth oi' Large Cities in the Valley— Manufactures in the Eastern, the Central and the Southeastern Valley.

Chapter IX. Cultivated Areas And Farm Values In The New Era. .439

Gain of Acreage Cultivated from 1S60 to 1S70— Losses in the South — Later Gains— Facts from Census— Later Values— The Period of Investments and the Period of Profits.

Chapter X. The Gifts Of Tiik Soil Agricultural Production . .114

Grain Pi-oduction in Various Years — Crop'5 and Prices— Other pioducts of the Farm — The Law of Expansion — The South and the Southwest.

CHAPTER XL

COMP.^RISON OF AGRICULTURE AND OF OTHER INDUSTRIES. .451

Comparison of Data for Fifty Years — Farm Products and Alining— Agriculture and Manufactures — Foreign Export.

Chapter XII. Commerce Of The Rivers And The Lakes 457'

Earlier and Later Statistics — Carriage bj Water and by Railway — The Future of Water-ways.

Chapter XIII. Direct Foreign Commekce Of The Valley 4g4

The Past and the Present of Commerce — The great Changes preparing — Atlantic Commeice — The future of South American Commerce — The Mississippi Valley, the Isthmus Canal and Pacific Commerce.

Chapter XIV. The Stimulants To Education Since The War 469

The Educating Influence of the War — New demands on Scientific and Teclmical Education — Sudden removal of Barriers to Observation — Educating power of Intense and Comprehensive Activity — Newspapers and Libraries.

24 cox T y. NTS.

Chapter XV. The Wonderful Progress Of Popular Education 474

The Funds devoted to School purposes in iS6o and 1S70 — Schools in the different States —The great improvement in Methods— Normal Schools — Universities and Colleges — Significance of School Systems in New States.

Chapter XVI. The Growing Breadth Of Relations To The Outside

WORLD 482

Relations to the Commerce .-ind Manufactures of the East — To the Mining and Commerce of the Wet.t — A New World of Relations.

Chapter XVII. The New Unity Of The Valley 406

A Financial Crisis, and the Telegrapli and Railway Systems — The East, the West and the Valley in a Financial Storm — The Valley comes to the Front — It is a World in itself — True Centralization.

Chapter XVIII. The Past And The Present Of American History.. ..501

Early directions in Development have not been changed — Expansion and Union of American T_)pes of Character — The American Idea and Manhood Suffrage — The free operation of Natural Law renders Catastrophes impossible.

Chapter XIX. The Grand Experiment, And European Democracy... 509

The Old Theory of Government shown to be False — Fifteen Years of European History — American connection with the Regeneration of European Governments — The Law of Change.

Chapter XX. A History Of Thk Prophets Of Evil 519

The Dark Side of the Picture — The Serious Dangers of the Past — How thej Disappeared — '• Beware of False Prophets."

Chapter XXI. The America Of The Future 527

The Monroe Doctrine and its Fruits — The Continent Unified in the Valley — The Rule of Reason and Interest — Can Intelligence and Science cease to Develop? — The Securities furnished by the Past and the Present — The Certainties of the Future — Its Probabilities.

THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.

Part First

THE ANCIENT HISTOEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY AND OF THE MOUND BUILDERS, AS RELxVTED BY SCIENCE.

The discoveries of Columbus, and of Portuguese mariners shortly before, opened an era of great importance to Europe and to mankind. They lifted the veil that hid another world from the eyes of the dawning modern civilization, enlarged tenfold the field of adventure and of business activity, and stimulated enterprise by the promise of brilliant rewards. For a thousand years Europe had been a general battle Held, whereon fierce passions, towering ambitions and contiicting interests had wasted the resources of church and state. These new openings for energy gradually relieved the deadly stress of coniiict between nations and classes, and changed destructive forces into agents of progress and prosperity. In this reconstruction of views and interests, which was made slowly but surely, many illusions and false notions, religious, social and political, disappeared. Mankind seemed now to come of age, so to speak, and enter, for the first time, on the serious work of life.

New experiences and a vast multitude of new facts could not all be harmonized with old theories, and the habit of more attentive observation, which the necessity of fresh explanations gradually introduced, led to the re-organization of the old sciences and to the development of many new ones. It was the starting point of truer study by more careful investigation. The workl, for instance, was proved to be round by mariners who constantly sailed in the same direction till they at length came back to their starting point; this laid a solid foundation for a true theoiy of the planetary system and the starry world ; stimulated inquiry into the laws that govern the motions of the heavenly bodies, and thus enlarged and corrected the Science of Astronomy. In a similar way every branch of knowledge profited by the great events of the Columbian Era.

Yet it took a long time to find out the most effective and reliable methods of study, and to teach men not to draw conclusions too hastily. Many difficulties were met in organizing this practical school. It was not easy to throw off the influence of old habits and views, and men found it liard to believe that those who had been revered for their learning in former times could have made so many great mistakes. The great men and the theories of the past had become identified with institutions whose influence and authority seemed to be attacked by the new learning, and persecution was frequently added to the other embarrassments of the student of science.

Many of the sciences required long and difficult researches, and the observations which must furnish the material for true theories accumulated facts slowly. The science of geology properly commenced with the inquiry how marine shells could have been placed in the heart of rocks and on the top of mountains. It was long before the true explanation could be found. Some rocks did not contain shells at all, ])ut bore the appearance of having cooled from a melted state. These were so numerous, especially in some regions, that it was believed by some that all rock was formed in that way, although that view did not satisfactorily account for the rocks containing the shells. Other regions showed very few, or none, of these fire-made rocks, nearly all contained the remains of organic life, and, the principal effVtrt being to account for them, the theory was advanced that all rocks were formed in water. Much study

THE GROWTH OF MODERN SCIENCE. 29

and discussion followed before it was seen that both these theories were necessary to a complete explanation.

Sometimes it was necessary that one science should reach a certain degree of perfection before it could shed tlie necessary liglit on important questions of another; and in others the whole world had to be pretty well known before the true theory could be framed. There was a great attraction in making fresh discoveries, the interest the questions raised constantly increased, and, as every part of the earth became more fully known to the civilized world, the dark points were gradually cleared up. A theory that is nearest the truth will explain the largest number of facts, and, led on by increasing breadth and clearness of explanation, men of science slowly and painfully conquered the difficulties in their way.

But, if the conquest was slow and painful, it was also sure, for it had the solid basis of nature to rest on. If they made mistakes, examined too hastily, and formed conclusions without the most mature consideration, the ever accumulating facts would convict them of error. In this way they learned extreme caution, sought the most accurate instruments and methods to aid their investigations, and, in our own day, have become renowned for the precise and patient care bestowed on their labors. ''Scientific Accuracy" implies the most thorough study and the most absolute certainty which the nature of the subject admits.

The glory of all past ages pales before the achievements of the scientific world of our generation and of that which immediately preceded it. The warriors, the statesmen, the artists and the thinkers of j^ast ages appear childish bunglers when compared with these broad-minded, clear-sighted, intellectual and practical giants of our time. The almost miraculous development of the industries and comprehensive activities of recent years, the means b}'- which distance and other obstacles have been deprived of their power to separate men and keep them in ignorance of each other, all come, directly or indirectly, from scientific discoveries. So useful has science become to practical life that it has l)een made, to a great extent, the general superintendent of the business undertakings, of the social and political aftairs, and of the thought of the world. If it has too lately received that high position to have banished false principles and injurious violation of the laws of nature, of business and of association, it is yet steadily and vigorously working toward that end, and can not well fail of ultimate success.