The mind of man : being a natural system of mental philosophy

Front matter

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X

A NATURAL SYSTEM

Preface

THIRTY -FIVE years ago I conceived the idea of studying mental phenomena in connexion with the organisation of the human frame.

An early study of the brain, nerves, and organs of sensation, exhibited to my mind the voltaic character of the nervous system ; and during this investigation, the beautiful method of injecting the smaller blood-vessels by carmine was discovered, which gave us the first exact knowledge of the distribution of the capillaries through the brain and spinal chord.

My attention was next given to the study of voltaic electricity, which led to the invention of the form of battery which bears my name, and to the development of my work on Electro - metallurgy which has been employed in the arts.

The relation of Physical Forces was next studied,

PREFACE.

and as the result of those labours the doctrine of the Monogenesis of Physical Forces was developed and published in my treatise on the ' Sources of Physical Science.'

After much consideration, and the bestowal of intense and concentrated thought over a long period, I developed my natural system of mental philosophy, wherein the laws of mental action were attempted to be ascertained by a consideration of the structure and functions of the brain, the nerves, and. of the organs of sensation, on the one hand, and by a study of the laws of electricity on the other.

Later, a paper on the Human Mind was written, and the principles of mental phenomena were described in a popular form, in a treatise entitled ' Instinct and Reason/

For the purpose of studying more intimately the organs of sensation, vision was made the subject of particular attention, and the results of my experience were published in a monograph which particularly describes the researches on Binocular Perspective.

The treatise entitled ' The Process of Thought adapted to Words and Languages' was next developed, which contains an account of the relational machine whereby most logical inductions and deductions can be obtained by mechanism.

PREFACE. IX

A lecture delivered at the London Institution, in Finsbury Circus, on Education, and another on the Monogenesis of Physical Forces, completes the series of books which have been particularly noticed in this volume.

The substance of these above-named works, so far as immediately appertains to this book, has been incorporated into the present volume, which thus comprises, either in detail or in general principles, nearly everything which I have written on the subject.

Every treatise designed for the study of a natural system of the human mind must, of necessity, deal with natural religion ; and it will be ever an important matter to test by pure reason that which is taught by religion, that we may be confirmed in a sure faith.

During the last half century we have passed through the greatest physical period which the world has ever seen. Electro-telegraphy, photography, electro -metallurgy, the steam locomotive, and the development of the laws of chemical combination and the physical laws of matter, have made great strides in the history of man.

Indications now exist that a metaphysical period is at hand, which may be as great in the future for

X PREFACE.

metaphysics and moral philosophy as the past has been for physics.

In view of the coming change, this treatise has been written as a contribution to mental philosophy, that we may conduct on a sure basis the discipline of our minds, the education of our youth, and the government of mankind.

I am indebted to Dr. Stewart, Dr. Ferrier, and Mr. Jonathan Hutchinson, for some of the illustrations of the structure of the nervous system ; and to my daughter, Mrs. Odling, for the analytical Index.

7 Finsbury Circus,

18th February, 1875.

Chapter I. Elementary Ideas

PAGE

Ideas from sensations — Eye-sensations, extent of — Ideas from two eyes — Ear-sensations — Number of notes heard — Taste-sensations— Odour-sensations —7 Feeling-sensations — Sensation-carriers, or nerves — All external forces become nervous in the body — Combination of nervous impressions — Changes of combination— Idea of time from nature of change — Cause — Pleasure and pain — Memory — Reason of man — Natural reason — Reason by words . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter II. Ideas Originating In The Mind Itself

Instincts — Spontaneous ideas — Ideas of states of matter, of modes of motion and of physical forces — Ideas of modes of human actior. and of thought — Ideas of infinity, of God, of heaven, ofheU .. 17

Chapter III. Consciousness

Consciousness — Consciousness only during part of existence — During sleep — Perfect unconsciousness — Deep thought and partial consciousness — Dreams — Anxiety — Consciousness depends on physical state — Mechanism of consciousness — Origin of consciousness 22

Xll CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. On The Will And Laws Op Human Action

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Human action — Automatic action — Voluntary action — Actions regulated by former ideas — Will not altogether voluntary — Laws of the will — The action of man regulated by pleasure and pain — Free-will and necessity . . . . . . 28

Chapter V. On Education And Faculties Op Man At Different Periods Of Life

Faculties at different periods of life — Diagram — The mind in childhood — In youth — In manhood — In senility — Education through the organs of sensation — Education by written knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Chapter VI. Discipline Op The Mind

The importance of using every organ — The practice of the use of the organs of sensation — Of memory — The practice of abstraction by thought, reflection, and comparison — The value of books in testing our personal knowledge — Value of conversation — Contemplation — Subjugation of our thoughts to moral laws — Benefits of Christianity — Evils of matter worship— Regulation of our actions . . . . . . 39

Chapter VII. On The Origin Of The Human Mind

Mind of man superior to that of other animals — Evolution — Hypothesis of the kinds of matter — Hypothesis of evolution of mind — Development from infancy to manhood — Can matter produce organic beings, and organic beings man ? — Experience of evolution — Limits of variation in organic beings — Tendency of varieties to resume their original type — Spirit — The eoul — Specific creations and evolutions . . . . 46

CONTENTS. X1U

Chapter VIII. On The Government Of Mankind

PAGE

Pleasure and pain regulate action — Influence of one person on another — Influence by personal statements, by anonymous writings — Value of repetition of statements — Imperfection of arguments — Self -taught persons not liable to influence — Modes of influencing the minds of others — Sympathy — Government of criminal classes — Punishment of criminals — Regulation of our own minds to withstand the influence of others . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chapter IX. On Words And Language

On words and language — Substantives — Adjectives — Verbs — Resolution of a verb or sentence as it was received by the brain — Induction by words — Deduction by words — Laws of thought by words — Relational and differential machine — Relational and differential slate — Human and Divine laws — Value of the pronoun 'I' — On evidence and testimony — On quibbling by words . . . . . . . . . . 69

Chapter X. Relation Op Mind To God

Argument of design — Fixity of laws of nature — Fixity of moral laws — Effect of prayer — Power of prayer — Nature of matter — Origin of matter — Creation of the universe — Omniprepresence of the Deity — His omniscience — His omnipotence . . 125

CHAPTER XL

RELATION OF THE MIND TO RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.

Influence of religious thought — Influence of the Deity — Of idolatry — Of moral laws — Spurious teachings — Necessity for ' the eradication of heathenism — Different appreciation of religion — Danger of the period — Religion and mental phenomena— Physical and moral laws — Difficult cases — Exact definition of physical laws — Want of definition of moral laws — Necessity for prudent action — Indications of future action 136

XIV CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. Relation Of The Mind To Moral Philosophy

PAGE

Action of one man to another — Right and wrong — Moral law the law of God — Truth — Absolute truth — Moral law universal— Particular moral laws — Duty — Necessity for more exactness of moral laws — Mode of proceeding of medical men — Of lawyers — Improved mode of thought of clergy . . 150

Chapter XIII. On The Influence Of Faith On The Mind

Few ideas perfect — Faith supplies imperfections — Aisthenic faith — Syndramic faith — Exercise of faith supplies deficiencies of knowledge — Faith not certain but probable — Conditions of true faith — False faith — Noemic faith — Pneuma-noemic faith — Sure faith — Law of true faith — Examples of trust by faith — Examples of distrust — Faith demands reason — Reason should discard false faith . . . . . . . . 157

Chapter XIV. Fallacies Of The Human Mind

Aisthenic fallacies — Syndramic fallacies — Noemic fallacies — Different qualities of ideas should have different words — Pneuma-noemic fallacies — Mnemonic fallacies — Fallacies of judgment and comparison : of technical knowledge : of faith : of cause : of time : of pleasure and pain — Dynamic fallacies 167

Chapter XV. Theory Of Mental Action

Mechanism of organs of sensation voltaic — Nervous system a system of compound voltaic batteries — Influence of voltaic electricity on the circulation of the blood — Structure of the nervous fibres — Theory of instinct — Nervous system one organ — Principles of the human mind in health and disease — Defective states of mind — Abstract ideas — Mechanism of abstraction — Mode of abstraction — Difficulty of communicating abstract ideas — Future conflict of ideas — Importance of the study of abstract ideas . . . . . . . . 176

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter XVI. Voltaic Mechanism Op The Nervous System

PAGE

Nervous system a voltaic circuit — Essentials of a voltaic circuit — Single voltaic circuit — Compound circuit — Simple nervo-voltaic circuit — Hypothetical arrangement of the brain of animals — of man as a voltaic apparatus — Actual general structure of the brain — Professor Ferrier's researches — Microscopic structure — Termination of nervous fibres in the organs of sensation in the body — in the muscular system — Terminations of the nerves in the brain and spinal chord — High vascularity of tissues where nerves arise and terminate — Various artificial voltaic circuits — Electric fish . . 210

INDEX.. 245

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PIG. PAGE

1 Rectangular square, divided into nine squares . . . . 3

2 Rectangular square, divided into 100 squares, to mark the

3 Representation of an inner court of the Bank of England,

copied from a photograph which was made hy subjecting the plate one half the time required at one station, and the other half the time at a second station, two and a half inches from the first, whereby two pictures were formed exactly blended together, as man sees a picture with both eyes in nature . . . . . . . . opposite 5

4 Nest of Ploceus pensilis . . . . . . . . 18

5 Bowerbank's wasp's nest, illustrative of the effect of instinct 18 5* Diagram of the powers of man at different ages . . opposite 34

6 Acarus of Cross . . . . . . . . . . 51

7 Acarus of Weeks . . . . . . . . . . 51

8 Relational machine, one half closed, the other half open. By

mistake one reading has been figured in error, but it was immediately detached on the next casual inspection. The readings used are the logical terms, a, all ; n, none ; s, some 94

9 Differential machine ; — A, the magnitude used for the defini-

tion of one statement on one side, and the similarity on the second ; B, the magnitude used for either side, when the matter is unknown ; 0, the magnitude when the second differs from the first statement . . . . . . 100

10 Diagram of the action of religion in particular instances, and

the deduction of general laws for particular instances . . 107

11 Single voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 211

12 Double voltaic circuit .. .. .. .. ..211

b

XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

no. PAGE

13 Single nervo- voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 211

14 Triple nervo-voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 212

15 Three nerves with their combinations . . . . . . 212

16 Theoretical nervous combination of lower animals . . . . 213

17 Theoretical nervous combination of man . . . . . . 213

18 No. 1 — Anatomy of the fibres of the brain, after Mayo. A,

the spinal chord ; f, posterior columns of spinal chord, into which the sensor nerves are implacted, and which are continued into the cerebellum, B. From the cerebellum fibres are continued to the corpora quadrigemina, k I. Other fibres are continued from the spinal chord through the olivary bodies, c, by the olivary fasciculus, h, which are continued to the cerebrum, ccc. From the cerebrum fibres converge to the pons, n, and from this point the fibres of the anterior fasciculus of the spinal chord spring, d, from which bundles the motor nerves arise (half diameter). No. 2 — The ultimate vesicles of the brain, with nerve-tubes placed in the grey matter amongst the blood-vessels (highly magnified). No. 3 — Ultimate structure of nerve-fibre (highly magnified) . . . . . . . . . . 214

19 Brain of man, showing the convolutions of the cerebrum

overlapping the cerebellum . . . . . . . . 216

20 Brain of dog, showing how the cerebellum can be seen pro-

jecting beyond the cerebrum. This is a general peculiarity of animals, though it has been disputed whether in the single case of a monkey the cerebellum has not been completely covered . . . . . . . . . . 216

21 Nervous system of star-fish . . . . . . 217

22 Side view of brain of cat, to illustrate Professor Ferrier's re-

searches. A, crucial sulcus dividing anterior convolutions ;

B, fissure of Sylvius ; 0, olfactory bulb . . . . 217

23 Side view of brain of dog. A, crucial sulcus ; B, fissure of

Sylvius ; C, olfactory bulb . . . . . . 219

24 Upper surface of brain of rabbit. A, cerebrum; B, cere-

bellum ; C, olfactory bulb . . . . . . 220

25 Plexus of nerves from the spinal marrow, after Strieker, a,

Nerve tube communicating with plexus . . . . 221

26 Cerebellum, showing the blood-vessels on the right-hand side

descending vertically into the grey matter, and on the left the nerve-cells with nerve-fibres diverging from them, by Dr. Stewart 223

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX

FIG. PAGE

27 Ultimate nerve-fibres of the sympathetic nerve (highly mag-

nified) 224

28 Terminations of the nerve of the retina, showing the rods and

cones, after Strieker . . . . . . . . . . 224

29 General view of the layers of retina of man. 1, Membrana

limitans interna. 2, Optic fibre layer. 3, Ganglia cell layer. 4, Internal granulated layer. 5, Internal granule layer. 6, External granulated layer. 7, External granule layer. 8, Membrana limitans externa. 9, Layer of rods and cones. 10, Pigment layer . . . . . . 225

30 Termination of the nerves of the skin. The spinal vessels

are shown running from the perspiratory ducts. The nerve is depicted passing to the papillae, also delicate plexus of nerves between the papillae is shown, drawn by Dr. Stewart . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

31 Termination of the auditory nerve. 1, Cartilage of the wall

of the ampulla. 2, Structureless basement membrane. 3, Doubly continued nerve-fibre. 4, Axis cylinder traversing the basement membrane. 5, Plexiform union of nerve-fibres with interspersed nuclei. 6, Fusiform cells with nucleus and dark fibre in their interior. 7, Supporting cells. 8, Auditory hairs (highly magnified) . . . . . . 227

32 Termination of the gustatory nerve of the frog, magnified

33 Terminations of olfactory nerve. A, a, Epithelial cells from

the o^actory region of the proteus ; d, the processes apparently connected with them ; e, olfactory cells ; B, epithelium and olfactory cells from Max Schultze . . . . 228

34 Distribution of nerves on muscle, after Strieker. A, seen in

profile ; pp, terminal nerve plate : s s, support of the plate with nuclei. B, the same in fresh muscle. C, the same after death . . . . . . . . 229

35 Artificial muscle, which distends in breadth, and contracts in

36 Artificial blood corpuscule . . . . . . . . 229

37 Arteries and veins of the choroid coat of the eye . .$ . . 230

38 Yellow spot of Sommerring, the centre of perfect vision . . 230

39 Artery of the retina, from my own preparation . . . . 230

40 Blood-vessels of internal ear, from my own preparation . . 231

41 Blood-vessels of the nose, from my own preparation . . 231

42 Blood-vessels of the tongue, from my own preparation . . 231

XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

F1S. PAGE

43 Blood-vessels of the skin, from my own preparation . . 231

44 Blood-vessels of muscles. The artery enters at right angles

to the muscles, and they are distributed parallel to the fibres .. .. .. .. .. ..232

45 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the spinal chord, from my

own preparation, injected with carmine . . . . 232

46 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the cerebrum, from my

own preparation, injected with carmine (magnified) . . 233

47 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the cerebellum, from my

own preparation, injected with carmine (magnified) . . 234

48 A, from the electric organ of Mormyrus oxyrhyncus ; B,

from the electric organ of Mormyrus dorsalis . . . . 235

49 Single battery cell, from a model in the Hunterian museum . . 236

50 A series of batteries, from a model in the Hunterian museum 237

51 Torpedo viewed from above, showing the brain and the

enormous distribution of the eighth pair of nerves to the electrical organ. 11, Mnciferous organs; 10, openings of mucif erous ducts on skin . . . . . . . . 236

52 Transverse section of torpedo ; F, electric organs ; p p, ver-

tical prisms ; 8, eighth pair of nerves to supply batteries ; L, electrical lobe ; o, ear ; F, mouth ; g, muscles of extremity ; /, f ollicular organs . . . . . . . . 237

53 Artificial electrical fish-cell .. .. .. ..237

54 Lateral section of the electrical organs of electrical eel. a,

Dorsal muscle ; 6, larger electrical organs ; c, lateral fin muscles ; d, lesser electrical organ ; f, spinal chord ; g, spinal chord ; h, fifth pair of nerves ; *, air-sac ; m, membranous septum ; n, edges of lateral fin muscles ; o, cut dorsal muscles ; p, body of vertebrae ; q, larger electrical organs ; r, lateral muscles ; t, lateral fin muscles ; u, fin . . 238

55 Transverse section of electrical eel. a, Skin ; b, aponeurosis,

covering muscles and electrical organs ; d, larger battery ; e, lateral fin muscles ; /, lesser batteries ; g, edges of lateral fin ; *, the fin ; k, body of vertebrae ; m, vein ; », artery ; o, air-vessel, after Letheby . . . . . . . . 239

58 Double voltaic battery, showing the mode of detecting voltaic

current in fluid 242

THE MIND OF MAN.

Chapter I. Elementary Ideas

Ideas from sensations — Eye-sensations, extent of — Ideas from two eyes — Ear-sensations — Number of notes heard — Taste-sensations — Odour-sensations — Feeling - sensations — Sensation-carriers, or nerves — All external forces become nervous in the body — Combination of nervous impressions — Changes of combination — Idea of time from nature of change — Cause — Pleasure and pain — Memory — Reason of Man — Natural reason — Reason by words.

THE mind derives the most elementary ideas or mental pictures from all things existing in the external world through the medium of the organs of sensation. These may be conveniently termed aisthenic ideas, from the word alaOiiais, sensation, and comprise those representations which are carried to the brain through the medium of the nerves from impressions made on the eye, ear, nose, tongue, aij^. skin.

EYE SENSATIONS, OR OPSAFSTHENICS. — The ideas derived through the eye are the most important, as a photographic image is formed on the retina, and the picture so produced is carried to the brain where it is indelibly fixed. When

B we look at an extensive prospect we are delighted at the perfect picture which we see. The minutest detail is accurately delineated, and the objects themselves appear to us in the various colours which comprise the spectrum. Nevertheless when we minutely scrutinise the mental picture, we are as astonished at the limited range of the entire prospect which is revealed to us at one instant of time as we are with the perfection of that picture within the range for which the eye is adapted by nature to receive it.

The eye sees without motion at a glance every object contained within a circle of the diameter of -^t-h of the distance of the object from the eye ; that is to say, we see without a movement of the eye every object of one inch at twenty-five inches distance, or every object contained within the circle of a mile at twenty-five miles distance. In mathematical language, perfect vision is obtained over a range of 3° 18'.

Beyond this circle of complete vision objects are more indistinctly seen the farther they are removed from the centre, and in my treatise on the Eye exact details are given of the pictures formed in my own organs of vision. Within the range of perfect vision, however, the eye only perceives objects, or parts of objects, of a certain magnitude. For instance, at fifty feet distance the total range of perfect vision is contained in a circle two feet in diameter. At twenty-five inches the circle is restricted to one inch. Within this circle, and at that distance, we can discriminate parts not less than -^oth of an inch diameter.

This limitation of visual power proves that any mental picture can only contain a definite number of parts. The picture on the retina is similar to patterns used by needlewomen, though on a more minute scale.

In the study of the mind it has been convenient to assume that the limit of the perfection of vision is a square instead of a circle, and that this square if measured is the 2Jjth of the distance from the eye. From this it follows that at 12 \ inches from the eye one square inch comprises the range of perfect vision, and the ultimate parts of which this square is composed are the ^-gth inch across. By multiplying 250 x 250, we have in this space of perfect vision 62,500 squares, which are visible, and on each of which an impression may be made and carried by the nerves to the brain.

Now the visual square divided into its 62,500 parts, and impressed with a picture, resembles the pictures used by needlewomen. If a number be assigned to each ultimate compartment, the squares implicated in any picture may be designated, and the result communicated from one person to another, the minuteness of each ultimate compartment being the only barrier to an exact representation of any picture seen by one person being communicated to a second.

For example, a rectangular square may be divided into nine parts, then we shall find if some are black and the remainder white, and if each is distinguished by a definite number, that if the following squares are black, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, the letter D would be represented. If 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,

8, 0 ; if 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, T ; if 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, U ; if 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, X. The numbers of each ultimate compartment acted upon can be told to any other person at any distance or at any future time, when the particular spaces can be filled up in black, when a second picture can be made identical with the first. By imitating the natural operation of

ELEMENTARY IDEAS.

the nervous system, a secret language could be used, which the genius even of a Young who was so skilled in deciphering secret languages, might have failed to have discovered.

Each compartment might be described trigonometrically as well as arithmetically, as each compartment has a definite relative position to every other compartment.

Not only letters, but distinct pictures, might be described, were it not too laborious ;

in truth, any picture seen by the eye

of one person could by assigning a designation to each compartment be so - described as to be .capable of being repeated, so as .to be understood by any other person, as in this diagram of one hundred parts.

Whenever an object in the ex-

Fig. 2.

ternal world produces an image on the retina, of the eye, smaller than the ultimate compartments of which it is composed, it is invisible, unless the image is increased in size either by the telescope >or by the microscope, and that which is not depicted in the eye is not appreciated by the brain. Our knowledge derived by vision is therefore limited, as we can only obtain information from the eye when the object is of certain defined magnitude.

Not only is our knowledge limited by the size of the object, but also our power of discriminating colours is limited to the rays which we designate red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. Chemistry reveals that there are other rays less refrangible than the red rays, and more so than the violet, which are not visible to the eyes of men.

The mind obtains information from the images formed in the two eyes, because the two eyes, being 2^ inches apart, are placed at two stations, and a somewhat different image is formed in each. An inquiry on this matter, although proper in a treatise on the Eye, need hardly be continued in a work designed for a study of the mind further than to remark that the mental picture derived from the two eyes combined reveals more of each object viewed than the picture derived from one eye alone.

The eye considered by itself is a mere optical arrangement or camera, containing lenses for the formation of the image, contrivances for adjusting the lenses to various distances, and optical combinations to render the eye achromatic and to correct spherical aberration. In the manner in which the eye does its work, it is as far superior to the camera of the photographer, as all other works of nature are superior to the contrivances of man.

The accompanying engraving of an inner court of the Bank of England is copied from a photograph, taken at one station for one half the time the process was required, and then at a second station, 2J inches distant from the first position. By this plan of operation two distinct pictures were formed and combined together to form a picture such as the two eyes see.

From an examination of the finest pictures in many of the most celebrated galleries in Europe, I have been able to detect the method by which various distinguished painters represent what is seen by both eyes at once. For example, Paul Veronese most skilfully obtains the effect of solidity by the suggestion of a line more or less broken to conceal his artifice outside the limbs of the figures which he has represented.

The picture formed on the retina by itself renders us no wiser for possessing an eye with all its marvellous contrivances. Some change, however, during the act of vision, takes place, which occupies a period of time which has been found to be Tyh of a second. This sets in motion a force which my experiments have led to infer that it is of a voltaic character. By this the picture is carried by a separate nerve for every compartment of the retina to the brain, whereby the mind becomes cognisant of the picture formed in the eye, and we obtain a knowledge of the objects in the external world when lit tip by any one or all of the various colours of which light is composed. Light, therefore, is that physical force which causes the pictiire to be formed upon the retina, and is the origin of the motive power by which a knowledge of that picture is carried to the brain where it is fixed for the mind to apprehend it.

Man is not singular amongst animal beings for deriving knowledge from the eye. It is, however, truly, his best sense, and deprived of it, he may say with Milton, —

' Knowledge at one entrance quite shut off.'

Some creatures, as birds, appear to possess the faculty of sight to a more perfect degree than any man with regard to the sixe and distance with which they can discriminate objects. Other beings, on the contrary, as the mole, the flea which lives on the mole, and the Proteus, have no perfect eyes, and cannot have those pictures of the works of nature brought to their knowledge which man has.

To what extent animals can appreciate colours it is difficult to tell ; but experience shows that the bull is excited by the red flag, and the tortoise runs to the yellow flower.