Microbiology, a text-book of microörganisms, general and applied

Front matter

o! z;

r-=l RJ

a a a m a

Introduction To The Third Edition

The kindly reception of Microbiology, which has been progressive, makes a revision a pleasurable task.

There has been little need of change in the basic facts presented, but there is always room for a clarification of thought and improvement in arrangement. As time has passed it has been found desirable, also, to emphasize and extend some of the chapters.

Teaching has demonstrated that, in most instances, the chapters dealing with biological products follow more naturally and logically the chapter on immunity. Since the chapters on diseases are more of a reference character, they have been placed at the end.

The war has made more prominent food contamination, preservation and decomposition. For this reason all chapters considering food have been brought together in a single division and greater attention has been given the subject by rewriting, insertions and enlarging the scope. Dairy microbiology has not been included in the division of food because it has such a distinctive field of its own.

The editor has a deep feeling of indebtedness to the contributors who have been so kindly disposed, ready and helpful in this revision, and to Miss Marion F. Dondale, for her immeasurable assistance.

CHARLES E. MARSHALL, EDITOR.

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

vn

Introduction To The Second

EDITION

The continued and growing demand for "Microbiology" has caused the contributors to undertake a thorough revision. In this they have been guided by the recent developments in this branch of science, and also by a desire to adjust and rearrange in the light of constructive suggestions and criticisms.

The primary purpose of this text-book is to place in the hands of college students an elementary technical treatise of the subject matter included. No effort has been made to review or cite literature, for to do either would expand the volume beyond useful limits. To provide an introductory text-book mainly for recitations, or for a supplement to lecture or laboratory courses, is about all that can be satisfactorily comprehended in a single project.

The cytological aspect of microbiology has seemed to us to deserve some emphasis, for it has become quite definite and has been suggestively indicating much of real value in connection with the active life processes of the cell and microbic activities in agriculture, medicine and wherever microbiology is applicable.

The significance of "Intestinal Microbiology" has required a short chapter for its proper presentation.

It has also been found desirable to treat the microbial diseases of insects, a growing subject, in a distinct chapter.

The study of microorganisms flounders in a fog of unsettled ideas for a proper designation. Whether it should be called Protistology, Microbiology, Bacteriology, Mycology, or something else must be left for the future to determine.

CHARLES E. MARSHALL, EDITOR.

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

ix

Introduction To The First Edition

By a process of adaptation and growth, the branch of science commonly recognized as "Bacteriology" has for many years included, besides the bacterial forms, those microorganisms yielding to the same laboratory methods of study and investigation. This is a policy or purpose instituted by Pasteur. It is also the result of investigations and added knowledge, more definite arrangements of available facts, and the highly specialized training required for the work. In short, technic together with the economic relations of the subject-matter has no little influence in placing limitations. In the light of such circumstances, it appears more pertinent to designate this text-book as "Microbiology" perhaps not the best term, but one much in accord with French usage.

Agriculture, Domestic Science and certain other courses in scientific schools and colleges call for the treatment of the subject in such a manner as to make it basic to the interpretation of such subjects as air impurities, water supplies, sewage disposal, soils, dairying, fermentation industries, food preservation and decomposition, manufacture of biological products, transmission of disease, susceptibility and immunity, sanitation, and control of infectious or contagious diseases. A strong effort has been made to provide the fundamental and guiding principles of the subject and to show just how these principles fit into the subjects of a more or less strictly professional or practical nature. Here the instructional work of the microbiologist stops in most educational institutions and the instruction of the practical or professional man begins.

Because of the extreme massiveness and diversity of the subjects, Agriculture and Domestic Science and Industrial Vocations in general, a comprehensive consideration of the subject is demanded. Elimination of many features not only becomes difficult but really precarious, because so many avenues are open to the student that pertinency cannot always be foreseen or determined. It is well to remember, too, that

xi

Xll INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION

such aggregate subjects as Agriculture and Domestic Science, unlike Engineering and Medicine, because of their youth, have not developed to that stage in their educational history where practice and the science upon which practice should be founded are amalgamated. The practical man in Agriculture, and Applied Sciences generally, too frequently is so extremely traditional in his practice that he utterly fails to separate the true from the false, or, in other words, does not exercise his discriminative powers at all, but depends entirely upon so-called haphazard methods and self-willed processes. This factor operates against the proper development and logical study of any branch of science in its relation to the farmer, or manufacturer.

The plan of a text-book in Microbiology which seeks to furnish basic principles, to train the mind in logical development and adjustment, and to prepare the student to undertake an intelligent study of strictly professional or practical subjects, must assume a definite and systematic arrangement. With this in mind, the text has been divided into three distinct parts: Morphological and Cultural, or that which deals with forms and methods of handling; Physiological, or that which deals strictly with functions, the key to the applied; Applied, or that which reaches into the application of the facts developed to the problems met in the study of professional or practical affairs.

In a text-book, the product of several hands, there is the most serious difficulty in obtaining unity of thought and expression without repetition; besides, that very conspicuous weakness of emphasizing some features unduly while other features of importance are scarcely mentioned, confronts us. A most earnest attempt has been made to overcome these faults as far as possible, but a complete mastery of them cannot be expected in the first product. However, what is lacked in unity and continuity of expression and in balance we sincerely hope will be made up, in part at least, by the selection and the value of the material contributed.

Laboratory features of microbiology have been eliminated wherever it has been practicable. Should any demonstrations be added or needed, we have felt that they may be easily supplied by the instructor, who, of course, will be governed by local facilities and conditions. Although no space has been given to laboratory exercises, it should not be gathered that the authors of this book are any the less earnest in urging a well-organized laboratory course to supplement the general

INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION Xlll

instruction as an essential factor to a working appreciation of the subject.

In matters of spelling, new words, and phrases, conservatism has controlled. Arbitrary decisions and selections have been forced in several instances to secure clearness, consistency and definiteness. It is painfully evident to anyone attempting to bring system out of the confusion and chaos existing in many fields of microbiological action that some rearrangement ought to be undertaken. As usual, however, this will be very slow on account of the many almost insurmountable difficulties.

We need and invite helpful suggestions and criticisms at all times,, for a valuable text-book of the nature of this is one of slow growth and development and not of "sport evolution." The editor is certain that each contributor will welcome suggestions and, further, will be in far better position to judge his own contribution after the material appears in book form and has been submitted to students for which it is designed.

No one better than the editor realizes fully the sympathetic part played by the contributors. If any merit attaches to this book as it finds its place in microbiological instruction, such merit should be recognized as due the contributors whose unselfish aims have made it possible.

CHARLES E. MARSHALL, EDITOR.

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

Contents

TITLE PAGE iii

CONTRIBUTORS v

INTRODUCTIONS (Editor) vii

CONTENTS (Editor) xv

HISTORICAL REVIEW (Harrison) i

Part I.— Morphology And Culture Of Microorganisms

GENERAL (Editor). OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS (Thorn) OUTLINE OF PROTOZOAL GROUPS (Todd)

*

CHAPTER I. — ELEMENTS OF MICROBIAL CYTOLOGY (Guilliermond) 15

Cells and energids. — Structure of the cell, — Nuclear structure (general structure of the nucleus, centriole, value of the nucleus, forms of nuclei, theory of binuclearity), cytoplasm (appearance of protoplasm, chondriosomes, vacuoles, reserve products), membrane, locomotion. — Reproduction, — Various processes, nuclear division (mitosis, amitosis), sexual changes.

CHAPTER II. — MOLDS (Thorn) CYTOLOGY (Guilliermond) 36

Fungi in general, — Bacteria. Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Imperfect fungi. — Cytology of molds, — General structure of molds, cytoplasm, nuclei, metachromatic corpuscles and reserve products, cell wall. — Molds, — Cosmopolitan saprophytes, molds of fermentation, parasitic molds. — Consideration of groups, — Mucor, Thamnidium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Monascus, Cladosporium, Alternaria and Fusarium, Oidium, Monilia, Dematium, Saprolegniaceae.

CHAPTER III. — YEASTS (Bioletti) CYTOLOGY (Guilliermond) . 61

Morphology of certain types, — Definition and bases of classification. — Cytology, — General structure of yeasts, cytological phenomena during multiplication, variation in the cellular structure during development, cytological phenomena of the sporulation and germination of ascospores. — The principal yeasts of importance to fermentation industries, — True yeasts, pseudo-yeasts. — Culture of yeasts.

CHAPTER IV. — BACTERIA (Frost) CYTOLOGY (Guilliermond). 79

Forms of lower bacteria, — Fundamental form types, gradations, involution forms. — Size. — Motility, — Brownian movement, vital movement, organs of locomotion, character of movement, rate. — Reproduction, — Vegetative multiplication, spore formation. — Cell grouping, — Cell aggregates among the micrococci, the bacilli, the spirilla, Zooglcea. — Cytology of bacteria, — General consideration of cytoplasm and nucleus, minute consideration of cytoplasm and nucleus, life cycle of bacteria (Editor), reserve products, general structure of cell wall, minute structure of cell wall, capsules, general consideration of flagella, minute consideration of flagella. — Higher bacteria, — The larger spirochaetes, trichobacteria, the sulphur bacteria. — Classification.— Relationship of bacteria. — Cultivation of bacteria.

CHAPTER II. — A STUDY OF PHYSICAL FORCES INVOLVED IN BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES (Marshall and Itano) I5.S

Introduction, — Energy. — Solutions. — Electrical conductivity, iopization and dissociation, — "True reaction," theory of H ion concentration. — Surface tension. — Adsorption. — Brownian motion. — Diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, permeability. — Colloids and crystalloids.

CHAPTER III. — CHEMICAL STUDIES OF THE CONTENTS OF MICROBIAL CELLS (Marshall

and Itano) 186

Analyses, — Moisture, proteins and other nitrogenous substances, carbohydrates, fats, ash elements, enzymes, toxins, vitamines.

DIVISION II. — NUTRITION AND METABOLISM (Rahn)

INTRODUCTION — (Revised by Marshall; a few paragraphs on protozoal nutrition by Todd) 195

Chapter II. — Mechanism Of Metabolism 203

General theory of metabolism, — Metabolism, katabolism, anabolism. — Intra- and extra-cellular fermentation. — Decomposition of insoluble food, properties of enzymes, enzymes of fermentation, — Classification of enzymes. — Hydrolytic enzymes, enzymes of carbohydrates, enzymes of fats, enzymes of proteins, coagulating enzymes.— Zymases. — Oxidizing enzymes. — Reducing enzymes. — Enzymic theory of katabolism. — Enzymic theory of anabolism. — General enzymic considerations.

Chapter III. — Food Of Microorganisms 221

Moisture requirement. — Amount of food required. — Food for growth, — Sources of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, minerals. — Food for energy (oxygen relations).

Chapter IV. — Products Of Microbial Activities 230

General considerations. — The chemical equations of fermentations. — Products from nitrogen-free compounds, — Sugars, starch, cellulose, acids, alcohols, fats. — Products from nitrogenous compounds, — Protein bodies, ptomaines, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid. — Products from mineral compounds. — Oxidations, reductions. — Unknown products of physiological significance, — Pigments, aromatic substances, enzymes, toxins. — Physical products of metabolism, — Production of heat, production of light.

PART III.— APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY DIVISION I. — MICROBIOLOGY OF AIR (Buchanan)

CHAPTER I. — THE MICROORGANISMS OF THE AIR AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. . . . 303 Microorganisms present in the air. — Occurrence in the air. — How microorganisms enter the air. — Conditions for subsidence of bacteria. — Determination of the number of bacteria in the air. — Number of bacteria in the air. — Species of organisms in the air.

CHAPTER II. — MICROBIAL AIR INFLUENCE IN FERMENTATION, DISEASES, ETC. . . 308 Air as a carrier of contagion. — Organisms of the air and fermentation. — Freeing air from bacteria.

DIVISION II.— MICROBIOLOGY OF WATER AND SEWAGE

CPIAPTER I.— MICROORGANISMS IN WATER (Harrison) 310

Classes of bacteria found in water, — Natural water bacteria, soil bacteria from surface washings, intestinal bacteria usually of sewage origin. — The number of bacteria in rain, snow, hail, etc., and in water from wells, up-land, surface waters, rivers, and lakes. — Causes affecting the increase and decrease of the number of bacteria in water, — Temperature, light, food supply, oxidation, vegetation and protozoa, dilution, sedimentation, other causes. — Interpretation of the bacteriological analysis of water,— Quantitative standards, qualitative standards. — Sedimentation, filtration and purification of water, — Sedimentation and filtration, coagulating basins and filtration, porous filters, purification by ozone, purification by heat, purification by chemicals.— Location and construction of wells.

XV111 CONTENTS

CHAPTER II. — MICROBIOLOGY OF SEWAGE (Phelps) 330

Bacterial flora of sewage. — Types of sewage bacteria, — Putrefactive and anaerobic bacteria (the liquefaction of protein, the fermentation of cellulose, the saponification of fats, the fermentation of urea, the reduction of sulphates and nitrates), oxidizing bacteria (the production of nitrates and nitrites, other oxidizing reactions), pathogenic bacteria (prevalence and longevity, life in septic tanks and filters). — The cultivation of sewage bacteria, — Filters, anaerobic tanks. — The destruction of sewage bacteria, — By biological processes, by chemical processes.

DIVISION III. — MICROBIOLOGY OF SOIL (Lipman)

CHAPTER I. — MICROORGANISMS AS A FACTOR IN SOIL FERTILITY 345

Introduction. — The soil as a culture medium. — Moisture relations, — The amount and distribution of rain fall, range of soil moisture, effect of drouth and excessive moisture. — Colloidal nature of the soil. — Aeration, — Mechanical composition of soils, aerobic and anaerobic activities, rate of oxidation of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, the mineralization of organic matter. — Temperature, — Influence of climate and season, early and late soils, production and assimilation of plant food. — Reaction. — Range of soil acidity, causes of soil acidity, soil reaction and hydrogen-ion concentration, change of reaction produced by microorganisms in the medium, effect of reaction on number and species. — Food supply, — Organic matter, the mineral portion of the soil. — Biological factors, — Fungi, algae, protozoa, higher plants, bacteria (numbers and distribution, bacteria in productive and unproductive soils, distribution at different depths, seasonal variations of bacterial numbers and activities, morphological and physiological groups). — Methods of study, — Methods for counting bacteria, quantitative relations, qualitative reaction, transformation reactions, rate of oxidation of carbon, rate of oxidation of nitrogen, addition of nitrogen, reactions concerning calcium, magnesium, sulphur, phosphorus.

CHAPTER II. — DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SOIL 375

Carbohydrates, — Origin, decomposition of cellulose, the production of methane and hydrogen, oxidation of methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, the cleavage and fermentation of sugars, starches, and gums. — Fats and waxes, — Origin and decomposition.— Organic acids, — Sources, transformation and accumulation. — Protein bodies, — Amount and quality, carbon-nitrogen ratio. — Transformation of nitrogen compounds, — Ammonification, nitrification, denitrification. — Analytical and synthetical reactions, — Amount of bacterial substance in the soil, availability of bacterial matter, transformation of peptone, ammonia, and nitrate nitrogen.

CHAPTER III. — FIXATION OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN. (Methods of Soil Inoculation

by Edwards.) 400

The source of nitrogen in soils, — Early theories, chemical and biological relations.— Non-symbiotic fixation of nitrogen, — Historical, anaerobic species, aerobic species, energy relations. — Symbiotic fixation, — Historical, modes of entrance and development, resistance, immunity, and physiological efficiency, mechanism of fixation, variations and specialization, relation to environment. — Soil inoculation, — Methods of soil inoculation, — Inoculation with legume earth, inoculation with pure cultures, etc. (Edwards.)

Chapter IV. — Changes In Organic Constituents 417

Weathering process, — Origin and formation of soil, influence of biological factors.— Lime and magnesia, — Removal and regeneration of carbonates, lime as a base, effect of calcium, magnesium compounds upon bacterial activities. — Phosphorous, — Availability of phosphates, relation of phosphorus to decay and nitrogen-fixation. — Sulphur,— Sulphur compounds in the soil, sulphur-phosphate composts, sulphur bacteria, sulphofication, sulphate reduction. — Potassium, — The transformation of potassium compounds in the soil. — Other mineral constituents, — Iron, aluminum, manganese, and copper. — Antagonism. — Variability in soil fertility investigations.

CONTENTS XIX

DIVISION IV. — MICROBIOLOGY OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

CHAPTER I. — THE RELATION OF MICROORGANISMS TO MILK. (Stocking.) (The Acid-forming Bacteria, by Hastings.) 428

Character of milk. — Absorbed taints and odors. — Changes due to microorganisms. — Microbial content of milk, — Common milk, special milks, certified milk. — — Sources of microorganisms in milk, — Interior of cow's udder (healthy udders, diseased udders), exterior of cow's body, atmosphere of stable and milk house, the milker, utensils, water supply. — Methods of preventing contamination of milk, — Individual cows, care of the cow's body, avoid dust in atmosphere, dairy utensils, the milker. — Groups or types of microorganisms found in milk, and their sources, — General significance of acid-forming bacteria, groups of acid-forming bacteria (characteristics of the Bad. lactis acidi group, characteristics of the B. coli-aerogenes group, characteristics of the Bact. bulgaricus group, characteristics of the coccus group) (Hastings), bacteria having no perceptible effect upon milk, the casein-digesting or peptonizing bacteria, pathogenic organisms. — Factors influencing the developing of microorganisms in milk, — Initial contamination, straining, aeration, centrifugal separation, temperature, pasteurization, the use of chemicals.— The normal development of microorganisms in milk, — Germicidal period, period from end of germicidal action to time of curdling, period from time of curdling until acidity is neutralized, final decomposition changes. — Abnormal fermentations in milk, — Gassy fermentation, sweet curdling fermentation, ropy or slimy fermentation, bitter fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, other fermentations. — The commercial significance of microorganisms in milk, — -Relation of dirt contamination to germ content. — Milk as a carrier of disease-producing organisms, — (acid forms, neutral forms, injurious organisms, epidemic diseases, non-epidemic diseases).— Bacteriological analysis of milk. — Bacteriological milk standards. — The value of bacteriological milk standards and analyses.

CHAPTER II. — THE RELATIONS OF MICROORGANISMS TO BUTTER (Hastings) 47 •

Types of butter, — Sweet cream butter, sour cream butter. — The flavor of butter,— Control of butter flavor, kinds and numbers of bacteria in cream, spontaneous ripening of cream, use of cultures in butter making, commercial cultures, use of pure cultures in raw cream, use of pure cultures in pasteurized cream, pure cultures in oleomargarine and renovated butter, abnormal flavors of butter. — Decomposition processes in butter. — Pathogenic bacteria in butter.

CHAPTER III. — RELATION OF MICROORGANISMS TO CHEESE (Hastings) 486

General. — Types of cheese, — Acid-curd cheeses, rennet-curd cheeses. — Conditions affecting the making of cheese, — Quality of milk, tests for the quality of milk, ripening of milk, curdling of milk, manipulation of the curd, ripening of cheese (theories of cheese ripening, present knowledge of causal factors, causes of proteolysis, prevention of putrefaction, other groups of bacteria in cheese, flavor production in cheese). — Abnormal cheeses, — Gassy cheese, miscellaneous abnormalities of cheese (bitter cheese, colored cheese, putrid cheese, moldy cheese). — Specific kinds of cheese, — Cheddar cheese, Emmenthaler cheese, Roquefort cheese, Gorgonzola cheese, Stilton cheese, Camembert cheese.

CHAPTER IV. — RELATION OF MICROORGANISMS TO SOME SPECIAL DAIRY PRODUCTS

(Stocking) 504

General. — Condensed milk, — Sweetened condensed milk, unsweetened condensed or evaporated milk, concentrated milk, powdered milk. — Canned butter, and cheese. — Special milk drinks made by the action of microorganisms, — Kumyss, kefir, leben, yoghurt, artificial buttermilk. — Ice cream.

XX CONTENTS

DIVISION V. — MICROBIOLOGY OF FOODS

CHAPTER I. — DESICCATION, EVAPORATION, AND DRYING OF POODS (Buchanan) . . .516 Agencies that bring about changes in dried foods. — Factors which inhibit growth of microorganisms in food. — Methods of drying, — Carbohydrate foods, as fruits, macaroni, vermicelli, copra, syrups, molasses, jellies, jams; fats, as cotton seed, olive, and other oils, etc.; protein foods, as jerked meat, dried beef, dried fish, pemmican, beef extract, gelatin, somatose, milk, eggs, etc.

CHAPTER II. — HEAT IN THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS (Edwards) 524

Historical r6sum£. — Economic importance, — From the standpoint of health and dietetics, and from the standpoint of commerce. — Alteration of foods, — Physical changes (appearance, mechanical disintegration), chemical changes (appearance, chemical change, palatability and digestibility), biological changes (vital disorganization, normal flora and fauna). — Pasteurization, — Economic consideration, specific application (beer, fruit juices, milk and cream, condensed milk). — Processing or sterilization, — Economic considerations, specific application (meat, fish, vegetables, and fruits). — Controlling factors in successful canning, — Cleanliness, soundness of raw material, receptacle, water supply, degree of heat required. — Home canning. — Spoilage, — Microbiological, detection of spoiled goods. — Disposal of factory refuse.

CHAPTER III. — THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD BY COLD (MacNeal) 542

Introduction. — The effects of refrigeration upon foods in general, — Changes during chilling, changes during storage, changes after storage. — Refrigeration of certain foods, — Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, butter, fruits and vegetables. — Legal control of the cold-storage industry.

CHAPTER IV. — PRESERVATION OF FOOD BY CHEMICALS (MacNeal) 550

The effects of preservatives upon foods in general, — The process of curing, the period of storage, the after-storage changes. — The chemical preservation of certain foods, — Meats, fish, dairy products, prepared vegetables, and fruits. — The nutritive value of preserved foods. — The effects of food preservatives, — Substances which preserve by their physical action, substances which preserve by their chemical action, inorganic food preservatives, organic food preservatives, substances added to foods to improve the apparent quality. — The legal control of the preservation of foods by chemicals.

Chapter V. — Microbiology Of Fermented Foods 559

Compressed yeast, — yeast as food (Cruess). — Bread (Cruess). — Vegetables (Cruess). — Olive pickling and canning (Cruess). — Silage (Cruess). — Malt syrups (Cruess). — Tobacco (Cruess). — Starch (Bioletti). — Sugar (Bioletti).— Tea (Biol- .etti).

CHAPTER VI. — MICROBIAL FOOD POISONING (MacNeal) 581

General considerations. — Infections of food-producing animals transmissible to man. — Human infections transmitted in food. — Food poisoning due to the growth of saprophytic bacteria in the food, — Poisonous meat, sausage, fish, shell fish, milk, cream, cheese, and vegetable food. — Specific diseases due to food poisoning, — Botulism, and Bacillus botulinus, ergotism, pellagra. — The chemical nature of food poisons.

CHAPTER VII. — MICROORGANISMS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT (MacNeal) 593

Introduction. — Microorganisms of certain portions of the alimentary canal, — Microorganisms of the mouth, microorganisms of the stomach, microorganisms of the intestines, microorganisms of the feces. — General method of study, — Collection of material.

CONTENTS XXI

DIVISION VI. — MICROBIOLOGY OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION AND DERIVED

PRODUCTS (Bioletti)

Chapter I.— Wine .603

Grape juice and wine as culture media. — The microorganisms found on grapes,— Molds, yeasts, pseudo-yeasts, bacteria. — The microorganisms found in wine,— Aerobic organisms (mycodermae, acetic bacteria), anaerobic organisms (slime-forming bacteria, propionic and lactic bacteria, mannitic bacteria, butyric bacteria).— Control of the microorganisms, — Before fermentation, during fermentation, after fermentation. — Prohibition and wine.

Chapter Ii.— Beer 622

Raw materials and microorganisms of brewing, — Grains employed, yeasts of beer, kinds of beer. — Process of brewing, — Outline, malting (production of enzymes), work of enzymes and bacteria, fermentation (work of yeast), after treatment.— Diseases of beer.

Chapter III. — Miscellaneous Alcoholic Beverages And Products . , 628

Cider and perry. — Fermented beverages of various fruits. — Hydromel or mead.— Miscellaneous fermented beverages, — Mexican pulque, sake, pombe, ginger beer.- Distilled alcohol, — Introduction (uses and sources of alcohol), — Methods (preparation of the sugar solution, fermentation).

Chapter IV. — Manufacture Of Vinegar • 636

Acetic fermentation, — Nature and origin of vinegar, vinegar bacteria. — Processes of manufacture, — Raw materials, fermentation, starters and pure cultures, apparatus, domestic method, Orleans method, Pasteur method, Rapid methods, rotating barrels, function of the film, after treatment. — Diseases.

DIVISION VII. — MICROBIOLOGY OF SPECIAL INDUSTRIES

Chapter I. — Special Industrial Fermented Products . 649

Acetone and acetic acid (Cruess). — Lactic acid (Cruess). — Citric acid (Cruess).— White lead (Cruess). — Leather (Cruess). — Indigo (Bioletti). — Retting (Bioletti).

DIVISION VIII. — MICROBIOLOGY OF THE DISEASES OF MAN AND DOMESTIC

ANIMALS

CHAPTER I. — METHODS AND CHANNELS OF INFECTION (McCampbell) t 659

Infection defined. — Microorganisms of diseases considered and classified, — Pathogenic bacteria, pathogenic protozoa, ultra-microscopic microorganisms or viruses, the distribution of pathogenic microbic agents in nature. — The occurrence of pathogenic microbic agents upon and in the bodies of healthy animals and man. — The manner in which infectious agents enter the body and their sources, — Air-borne infections, dust infection, droplet infections, water-borne infections, infections from soil, infection from food, animal carriers of infection, human carriers of infection, contact infection. — The routes by which infectious microorganisms enter the body. — Variation in infection. — The factors which influence the results of an infection,— Virulence, number, avenue, resistance. — The exact cause of infections, — Soluble toxins, endotoxins, toxic bacterial proteins, other possible exact causes. — The methods by which infectious microorganisms are disseminated. — The methods by which infectious microorganisms are eliminated from the body. — The effect of infectious microorganisms upon the body, — The period of incubation, local reactions, general reactions (metabolism, blood-forming organs, parenchymatous tissues, epithelial and endothelial tissues, erythrocytes and leucocytes, antibody formation).

XX11 CONTENTS

CHAPTER II. — IMMUNITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY (McCampbell) 684

General, — Definition, hypersusceptibility or anaphylaxis, predisposition and non-inheritance of infectious diseases. — Immunity, — Natural immunity and susceptibility (racial immunity and susceptibility, familial immunity and susceptibility, individual immunity and susceptibility), factors of natural immunity (the protection afforded the body by the surfaces, skin and cutaneous orifices, subcutaneous tissue, the exposed mucous membranes of the body, nasal cavity, mouth, lungs, stomach, intestines, genito-urinary tract, conjunctiva, the protective nature of inflammatory processes, natural antitoxins, natural antibacterial substances, normal hemolysins, normal agglutinins, normal precipitins), acquired immunity (active immunity, passive immunity). — The origin and occurrence of antibodies, — Antitoxins (the mechanism of the neutralization of toxin by antitoxin, units of antitoxin), lysins and bactericidal substances (the structure of lysins, deviation of complement, the deflection of the complement as a test for antibodies), cytotoxins and cytolysins, opsonins and phagocytosis (opsonic index, hemoopsonins), agglutinins (normal agglutinins, the production of agglutinins, the distribution of agglutinins in the blood, inherited agglutinins, the substances concerned in agglutination, structure of agglutinins and agglutinogens, agglutinoids, the stages of agglutination, hemoagglutinins), precipitins (normal precipitins, mechanism of the formation of precipitins, autoprecipitins and isoprecipitins, the phenomena of specific inhibition, antiprecipitins, the precipitinogen, precipitate, coprecipitins, the forensic use of precipitins). — The theories of immunity, — Noxious retention theory, exhaustion theory, Ehrlich's side-chain theory, phagocytic theory.

CHAPTER III. — MANUFACTURE OF VACCINES (King) 724

Introduction. — Actively immunizing substances (vaccines), — Attenuated viruses, smallpox vaccine, blackleg vaccine, blackleg aggressin, blackleg filtrate, rabies vaccine, Dorset-Niles hog cholera serum, anthrax vaccine, tuberculosis vaccine. — Bacterial vaccines (bacterins), — Typhoid fever, pneumonia, influenza-pneumonia, canine distemper, Asiatic cholera, bubonic plague. — Sensitized vaccine. — Toxin-antitoxin mixture.

CHAPTER IV. — THE MANUFACTURE OF ANTISERA AND OTHER BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS RELATED TO SPECIFIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES (King) 740

Antitoxic sera, — Diphtheria antitoxin, tetanus antitoxin, perfringens antitoxin. — Antimicrobial sera, — Antimeningococcic, antistreptococcic, antigonococcic, antipneumococcic, Dorset-Niles (antihog cholera), antirabic, antidysenteric, preservation of antisera. — Tuberculins, — Koch's old, other tuberculins. — Mallein. — Suspensions for the agglutination tests. — Substances used for diagnostic tests, — Luetin, antigens, Schick test.

CHAPTER V. — CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES (Hill) 754

Principles. — Practice. — Public health methods as revised and promulgated by the Institute of Public Health, London, Canada, — Householder's responsibility to board of health, physician's responsibility to board of health, penalties, definitions, rules for release of cases from isolation, placarding of house, quarantine periods for contacts, observation versus quarantine, regulations regarding visitors, in case of death. — Disinfection. — Carriage of infection by biological agents.

-CHAPTER VI. — MICROBIAL DISEASES OF MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS (various authors) 775 Diseases caused by molds and yeasts, — Pneumomycosis, aspergillosis, secondary infections (Thorn), thrush (Thorn), dermatomy coses, barber's itch, etc. (Thom), favus (Thom), actinomycosis (Reynolds), mycetoma (Fidlar), mycotic lymphangitis (Reynolds). — Diseases caused by bacteria, — Botryomycosis (Reynolds), gonorrhoea (Fidlar), epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis (Fidlar), infectious mastitis (Reynolds), Malta fever (Fidlar), staphylococcic infections (Fidlar), streptococcic infections (Fidlar), pneumonia (Fidlar), anthrax (Harrison), bacillary white diarrhaea of young chicks (Rettger), chicken cholera (Harrison), chronic bacterial enteritis (Reynolds), 'contagious abortion (MacNeal), diphtheria (Fidlar), dysentery

CONTENTS xxiii

(Fidlar), fowl diphtheria (Harrison), glanders (Reynolds), influenza (Fidlar), whooping cough (Fidlar), haemorrhagic septicaemia (Reynolds), leprosy (Fidlar), plague (Fidlar), swine erysipelas (Dorset), tuberculosis (Reynolds), foot rot of sheep (Dorset), malignant oedema (Fidlar), symptomatic anthrax (Reynolds), tetanus (Fidlar), typhoid fever (Fidlar), Asiatic cholera (Fidlar). — Microbial diseases as yet unclassified, — Scarlet fever, measles, German measles, Duke's disease, smallpox, chickenpox, mumps (Hill), canine distemper (Dorset), cattle plague (Dorset), contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (Dorset), cowpox, horsepox and sheeppox (King), dengue (Dorset), foot-and-mouth disease (Dorset), fowl plague (Dorset), hog cholera (Dorset), horse sickness (Dorset), infantile paralysis (Dorset), pellagra (MacNeal), rabies (MacXeal), swamp fever (Reynolds), typhus fever (Dorset), yellow fever (Dorset), — Diseases caused by protozoa (Todd), — Rhizopoda: amoebic dysentery, entero-hepatitis of turkeys; flagellata and Leishmania: kala-azar, infantile kala-azar, Delhi boil; trypanosoma: sleeping sickness, human trypanosomiasis of South America, trypanosomiases of animals; sporozoa; coccidia; coccidiosis of rabbits, avian coccidiosis; haemosporidia: malaria, red water. East Coast fever, oroya fever, anaplasmosis; sarcosporidia; haplosporidia; myxosporidia; microsporidia; infusoria: balantidium enteritis; parasites of uncertain position: relapsing fever, syphilis, yaws or frambcesia, other spirochaetal diseases.

DIVISION IX. — MICROBIAL DISEASES OF INSECTS (Wyant)

INTRODUCTION. — Bacterial disease of June Beetle larvae, Lachnoslerna spp. — Flacherie (silk worm). — "Japanese gipsy-moth, disease."- —Bacterial disease of locusts. — Bacillary septicaemia of caterpillars, Arctia caja. — Graphitosis. — American foul brood.- — Septicaemia of the cockchafer, Melolontha vulgaris. — European foul brood. — Bacterial septicaemia of larvae of the Lamellicornce. — Bacterial disease of the gut-

-, epithelium cf the lug-worm, Arenicola ecaudata. — Pseudograsserie of the gipsy-moth caterpillar. — Sacbrood of bees. — Wilt disease or flacherie of the gipsy-moth caterpillar, Porthetria dispar. — Pebrine. — Nosema-disease of bees. — Miscellaneous insect diseases, — Entomophthoracese (Thorn), — Other microbial diseases (Wyant). — General pathology and immunity studies 905

DIVISION X. — MICROBIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS (Sackett)

INTRODUCTION • 949

Chapter I.— Blights 95 1

Stem blight of alfalfa. — Bacteriosis of beans. — Blight of lettuce. — Blight of mulberry. —Blade blight of oats. — Stem blight of field and garden peas. — Pear blight.— Streak disease of sweet peas and clovers. — Tomato blight. — Walnut blight.

Chapter II. — Galls And Tumors 966

Crown gall. — Olive knot. — "Fingers and toes" of cabbages (Todd). — Tuberculosis of sugar beets. •