Methods of teaching modern languages 1923

Front matter

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Foreword

I wisn to thank the following persons for help in the preparation of this work: My wife, for general aid; Professors E. W. Bagster-Collins of Teachers College, New York City, J. P. W. Crawford of the University of Pennsylvania, Starr Willard Cutting of the University of Chicago, A. R. Hohlfeld of the University of Wisconsin, J. P. Hoskins of Princeton University, and W. R. Price of the State Department of Education, Albany, New York, for reading certain portions of the manuscript or proof; and Mr. E. A. Bryant of the World Book Company for careful editorial work.

C. H. H.

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*

CHAPTER pat

InDEXx

PAGE INTRODUCTORY 4 : THE Screntiric FounDATIONS OF MopEeRN LANGUAGE TEACHING VaLuEs AND MeEtTHops 48 ’Sxiub, DisciPLINE, AND ENJOYMENT 64 PRONUNCIATION . ’ 89 »

AssocIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 120 Ora Work 134 READING 149 WRITING Bean iy) | GRAMMAR .- 184) REALIA 205 TEACHING LITERATURE ; 4 : ‘ Inpivipuat DIFFERENCES, AND SUPERVISED STUDY 261 Reviews, TrEsts, AND EXAMINATIONS 286 SprecIAL PRoBLEMS 305 PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION . 339 TEACHER-T RAINING 355 Aprenpix A. Bibliography of Methods ‘ . 881 Appenprx B. Resolutions and Recommendations of Modern Language Teachers . AAT Apprenpix C. Syllabi of Four-Year Courses . 451 ° ‘ ‘ $ : : i ; ~ 475

Contents

We have in the United States made progress in the teaching of modern languages to the point where we feel the need of taking stock and of considering our future course. This was done as to methods by the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association and the National Education Association in 1898,! and for the history, statistics, and bibli- - ography, and, in less degree, for the methods also in 1912.?

An event of prime importance was the founding in 1916 of the Modern Language Journal. This national journal, the need of which had long been felt, was finally made possible by the codperation of the various modern-language associations of the country, which joined forces and formed the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers. The National Federation, together with its constituent state and regional associations, is important also, in that it touches thousands upon thousands of teachers through local, state, and regional meetings and in other ways.’ An event of importance, also, was the founding of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish, with its organ Hispania, a quarterly pedagogic journal which began publication in November, 1917. However, modern-language teachers in general hope that this movement may in time become merged with the National Federation. —

Another sign of promise is seen in the changed attitude of

Chapter One

Is there a science of teaching modern languages? Or are we merely following the beaten path, or the wisdom of the best practitioners? To be sure, in teaching any branch of learning whatsoever, the wisdom of the best teachers is still the main reliance. But has the wisdom of the best teachers, have their experiments, and the experiments of others, not established beyond doubt certain principles of pedagogic practice — principles which should be followed by any and every teacher, irrespective of personal ability, likes, or dislikes? Have there been established by exact measurements any principles of the learning process which are applicable in the teaching of modern languages?

If one looks over the discussions of the last few decades, particularly the polemics for and against the direct method. it would seem not. But upon a survey of the experiments in the economy of learning — which, as far as they concern modern languages, are here brought together for the first time — we do find a number of important principles which we may consider as definitely settled; a number of others have been sufficiently established to give them the standing of high probability and, until they are further proved or disproved, may be incorporated into pedagogical practice. Such a principle is that of daily drill of short duration, for a number of days — not, as heretofore practiced, isolated or intermittent drills of longer duration.!

1 See, for instance, Meumann, E., The Psychology of Learning, pages 265 ff. (D. Appleton & Co., New York; 1913); Pyle, W. H., “Economical Learning,’ Journal of Educational Psychology, 4: 148-158, 1913; Thorndike, EK. L., Educational Psychology, Vol. 2, page 194 (Teachers College, Columbia University, New York; 1913).

In discussing the scientific studies which are to yield us our principles, we shall do well to differentiate between various kinds of studies which have been conducted and which are still needed. Oftentimes in these days when measurements play so important a réle, educators and writers forget that before we can measure, we must have something to measure, and before that, we need to have established proper aims and the best methods of achieving these. For of what use is measuring if the material assimilated by the learner is not material that will yield values for life? We shall begin, therefore, with a discussion of the scientific basis of the aims in modern-language instruction.

Aims depend upon the nature of the learner. How can he be taught most economically? And upon the nature of the subject to be taught. What kind of schooling does it afford? And upon the utility of the subject. How can it be useful ?

Scientific study has shown that man has peculiar brain centers which are active in the use of linguistic forms.1 Two of these centers receive impressions from organs of sense, the eye and the ear (sensory); and two centers give out impulses to the motor nerves of the hand and the vocal organs (motor). |

In acquiring new linguistic forms these centers may be employed in succession, or two or more simultaneously, while in some cases one or more of the centers are not used at all. After thorough research, Wundt has constructed a scheme of the associations into which words enter. We cannot go into this erudite matter here. Those interested should read it up in the work quoted. We can here merely state the pedagogical corollary. It is this: the best method of inculcating

1Wundt, W., Psychologische Physiologie, Vol. 1, pages 170 ff., 238 ff.;

Wundt, W., Vélkerpsychologie, Vol. 1, Part 1, ‘‘Die Sprache,”’ Chapter 5 (Leipzig; 1911); Ibid., Vol. 3, pages 568 ff.

linguistic forms is to make the first appeal to the ear,! to be followed by imitative speaking exercises. The chief point for our purpose is that by studying how persons suffering from aphasia use language in its fourfold aspect, a scheme of the relation between these different phases of language has been constructed which throws light upon the greater or lesser spontaneity of the various processes. ‘The whole matter is still in the experimental stage, with little agreement on important points. The only pedagogical corollary which has been at all accepted so far is as stated above.

Pohlmann found further that for the retention of words the auditory-visual process is the most effective.?

It has been argued ® that presenting the material to the various sensory organs and expressing it by the motor organs in succession, heightens the impression and aids in fixing the new speech habits. This is no doubt true. The question remains: How does this procedure affect the various types of learners in a class? Does a learner of the visual type attend to the auditory impressions sufficiently, or would another mode of presentation aid his mode of retention better? Just so with motor types. Material, of course, could be presented simultaneously to the ear and the eye or be reproduced simultaneously by hand and mouth. Pohlmann, however, showed successive presentation, on the whole, more advantageous for retention ;* and Hawkins ° confirms this for young pupils.

1See also Eggert, Der Psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des Neusprachlichen Unterrichts, pages 43 ff. (Berlin; 1904); also Ries, L., Psychologisches und Unpsychologisches im Neusprachlichen Reformunterricht (Selb in Bayern; 1912), 58 pages.

2 Pohlmann, A., Experimentelle Beitriige zur Lehre vom Geddchtnis, Rages 150-157 (Berlin; 1906).

3 Handschin, C. H., “Methods of Teaching Modern Leneheee Selene 87 : 600-602, 1913. 4 Pohlmann, op. cit., page 181.

® Hawkins, C. J., “Experiments on Memory Types,”’ Psychological Rewiew, 4: 292, 1897. .

But we must not forget that the method of presentation of material for immediate retention does not determine the method which will be adopted by the student in his perception and assimilation of the material. This latter depends partly upon the mode of presentation, but equally upon the type of the learner. Thus, the auditory types in a class will, if material is presented to them orally, form auditory images of it, while the visualizers will at once build up visual images about it, either pictures of the printed words or free imagery. The auditory-motor type will, upon suggestion or without it, pronounce the words to themselves, or go through the appropriate muscular movements in the case of words denoting motions, or even go mentally through the motions necessary to write the word. Studies in how to differentiate the work to suit the various types as far as this is possible under classroom conditions are highly desirable.!

Libby ? studied the types found in his class through their reports on their own introspections. Young pupils and others not schooled in psychology have not, however, the proper insight into the phenomena to allow dependence on their self-observation. But most mature students can tell how they retain their words best. This may guide the instructor in his treatment and evaluation of them. Our warrant for holding the whole class to a certain mode of presentation is that until teachers shall be able to distinguish the types of learners clearly, and until standard procedures for providing work for the various types in the class are worked out, the teacher must perforce hold all to one kind of presentation. And, moreover, on this point Meumann says:

1Stern, Uber die Psychologie der Individuellen Differenzen (Leipzig; 1900). Cf., for the significance of ideational types in language instruction, Pfeiffer, L., Uber Qualitative Arbeitstypen (Leipzig; 1908).

2 Cf. Libby, W., Pedagogical Seminary, 17: 81-96, 1910.

Regarding Pohlmann’s own pedagogical inferences, it may be said that, in agreement with myself, he holds that in the treatment and evaluation of pupils, their ideational types must be taken into account, but not in teaching itself, because every pupil should be trained to work with methods of presentation which are not the most convenient for him.!

Thus, the teacher will seek to hold the class to the best mode of presentation for the class in general, or will attempt to provide in addition different modes of presentation for the different types of learners. The Handschin Predetermination Test 2 is useful in testing for linguistic ability. It also helps _ the teacher to recognize the type of the learner.

However, aims depend further upon the nature of the material learned. What schooling can linguistic material afford? It can be used to train in motor control, and in visual and aural perception. For this we have several experiments — and the results thereof, and hence may content ourselves with - merely referring to some such studies.’

We may argue then that since this training can be given by language teaching, and language teaching cannot give training in some other lines, and since such training is desirable, we should embrace these as proper aims. The training of the zesthetic sense, also, can very well be undertaken by the language teacher, at least as far as this can be trained by the study of literature. And in common with other studies it may be used to discipline in good habits of study. (See Chapter ITT.)

The utility of the subject must further determine the aims. Language is useful to obtain and to communicate ideas by hearing and reading and by speaking and writing. But not

1 Meumann, E., op. cit., page 155.

2 Published, and distributed gratis, by the U. S. Bureau of Education.

3 Dearborn, W. F., “Experiments in Learning,” Journal of Educational Psychology, 1: 373-380, 1910; Richardson, R. F., “The Learning Process in the Acquisition of Skill,” Pedagogical Seminary, 19 : 376-394, 1912.

all classes of students need to learn a language for all four of these purposes. It will depend, then, first upon the student, his nature, and his needs, as to what aims we shall set up for him, or for a particular class. But for the student who is to receive a thorough knowledge of language in its fourfold aspect we must set up this fourfold aim as has been demonstrated. The best methods of attaining these aims have been studied in experiments which we shall now describe.

Memory is a basal requirement in the learning process. We know that memory work has been much derided in these days of problem-solving, but we know, also, that this is only a, revulsion against the former almost exclusive culture of the memory. And what was worse, the old memory culture did not provide for putting the ideas into the mind in their proper relationship. Hence the matter was often dead and insignifieant. Later, we shall have something to say of the misuse of memory in modern-language work. But our quarrel is not with memory work, but with poor ways of memorizing. For must not memory furnish all the data for the solution of problems? Isit not, therefore, a basic requirement ?

Let us inquire first then into its laws. ‘The first investigation of importance here is that of Ebbinghaus.!. The importance of his study lies in its creation of a scientific method of studying the language-learning process. The nonsense syllables, which he was the first to use for purposes of memorial activity, provide for uniform vocables, and do away with the difficulty of pronouncing a foreign language. The results we shall summarize along with those of scholars who carried these experiments further.

Cattell measured among other things the reaction time of associations of words of the native tongue with foreign words,

1 Ebbinghaus, H., Uber das Gedéichtnis (Leipzig: 1885). English translation by H. A. Rieger and C. E. Bussenius (Teachers College, New York; 1913).

and showed that the reaction time is longer, or shorter, according to the subject’s intimacy with the foreign language.' His studies are important as establishing methods for the investigation of linguistic problems. The results of these experiments in the nature of language memory, which need not be described here, are best summarized by Meumann as follows : ?

I. The fundamental conditions of association in the narrow sense are to be found (1) in the temporal factors which come into operation in association; it was chiefly these which the old law of contiguity attempted to specify. ‘The temporal factors of association are reducible to three: (a) Every memory process must have a certain minimal duration in consciousness, if it is to establish a disposition to revival or an association with other contents of consciousness. We sometimes fail to retain fleeting impressions in memory because of their momentary character. (b) Every mental process must recur to consciousness a certain number of times if security of retention is to be attained. Impressions which have been present to consciousness but once are, in many cases, wholly forgotten unless they make a strong appeal to the attention or to the feelings. (c) The rhythmic recurrence of impressions and ideas tends to reenforce their retention. When words or tones are repeated in rhythm they are much more durably imprinted upon consciousness. These three conditions of association also constitute three fundamental conditions for increasing the permanence of associations and the valence or strength of dispositions, because the longer a mental process is present in consciousness, and the more frequently and the more rhythmically it returns to consciousness, the more intensive is its effect upon memory.

II. A second group of conditions of association is the product of the part played by attention in the processes of consciousness. The direction of our attention to any content of consciousness endows that content with a greater associative capacity or valence. The well-known fact that attention is a significant factor in associative learning is due chiefly to this phenomenon.

1 Cattell, J. McKeen, “‘ Psychometrische Untersuchungen,” Philosophische tudien, 4: 242 ff. Cf. also idem, 2: 635-650, 8 : 403-406, 9: 307-310. * Meumann, E., The Psychology of Learning, pages 15 ff.

II. A third group of conditions of association is due to the influence of the feelings; here too is to be included the influence of the organic sensations which originate in the internal organs of the body and which are intimately connected with the feelings. Every experience which was attended by more or less intensive feeling or emotion becomes ipso facto endowed with greater associative power. It is a familiar fact that occurrences which were intensively tinged with emotion are remembered more readily and in more complete detail; a single component idea — for instance, some person who was concerned in such an occurrence — may suffice to recall the whole occurrence to consciousness. In the domain of intellect, however, our feelings manifest themselves chiefly in the form of our “‘interest”’ in certain matters; and interest is one of the most fundamental conditions of impression and association. The extraordinary significance which attaches to interest in the imprinting of impressions and ideas upon the mind of the child has always been a matter of prime importance in pedagogy.

The improvement of the memory by practice in memorizing and the transferred effect of practice in learning vocables was studied by Dearborn, and is of especial interest to modern-language teachers since French and German vocables were used. After 18 to 22 practice periods there was a gain of 53 to 62 per cent in time consumed, while the practice effect also showed a gain of 7 to 33 per cent. In learning lines of poetry, even higher percentages of gain were achieved; namely, after 13 to 26 practice periods a gain of 55 to 82 per cent in time and of 2 to 52 per cent in practice effect.

There are two kinds of experiment possible in the investigation of such problems as the teaching of modern languages presents: the laboratory experiment, which is. strictly scientific and exact, but which has the disadvantage of being restricted to relatively small numbers of cases and a very limited range of phenomena; and the mass experiment, which has the advantage of being conducted under actual school-

1 Dearborn, W. F., “‘Experiments in Learning,’ Journal of Educational Psychology, 1 : 373-388, 1910.

room conditions, with considerable numbers of cases, but which has the disadvantage of affording only approximately correct measurements of the phenomena studied. |

Pedagogues are inclined to favor the latter, scientists the © former. However, both kinds of experiments are necessary to establish the facts firmly.

In the case of either kind of experiment we must beware of generalizing too broadly on the basis of data now available. In our summaries we shall bear this in mind and shall state only what appear to be thoroughly valid conclusions and sound pedagogical principles resulting therefrom.

In reporting the experiments I shall describe the experiment only sufficiently to give an insight into the problem and the results. This is thought to be more valuable for the teacher than technical descriptions would be, which would in addition cumber my pages unduly. All references are appended, which will enable those so inclined to read up the original in any case,

Peterson ! was the first to propose the undertaking of an experiment strictly in modern-language teaching. He also improved the method of investigation when he took up the question whether associations are formed more readily and permanently between the foreign symbol and its equivalent (noun) in the native tongue or between the foreign symbol and the object denoted by it; and second, between the foreign word and its equivalent in the native tongue (verb) or between the foreign word and the movement or action denoted by it (verb). Four series were used, as follows:

1. Foreign word — noun.

2. Foreign word — object. .

3. Foreign word — verb.

4. Foreign word — movement.

Peterson, “Recall of Words, Objects, and Movements,” Psychological Review, Monograph supplement 4: 207-233, 1903.

These were presented in such manner that the subject saw simultaneously the known nouns, objects, verbs, and motions, with the foreign words graphically represented above them. Both during the trials and during the following test, the order of presentation was properly varied in order to produce uniform conditions.

The tests showed that the memory for objects and movements is greater than for verbal impressions; i.e., that associations between the foreign noun and the object represented by it, and between the foreign verb and the movement denoted by it, are more readily formed than the associations between these foreign words and the equivalent words of the mother tongue. At a later test — 9 to 16 days after — the result was somewhat more favorable for the association between foreign words and native words but still decidedly favorable to the association between foreign words and objects or movements.

The findings of this se are very important, especially when taken in connection with Kirkpatrick’s study ! in which he found that almost three times as many objects as visual words were recalled after an interval of 3 days. This experiment was made with 379 school children and college students. In addition he showed that the children were not more dependent on the object than were the college students. Moreover, Miss Calkins ? made the same test with 50 college women, substituting lantern-slide pictures for the objects. Her results were 4.82 words against 7.45 objects, thus substantially corroborating Kirkpatrick’s findings. Her higher averages are probably due to shortening the interval from 3 to 2 days.

1 Kirkpatrick, E. A., “‘An Experimental Study of Memory,” Psychological Review, 1: 602-609, 1894.

2 Calkins, M. W., “‘A Study of Immediate and Delayed Recall of the Concrete and of the Verbal,”’ Psychological Review, 5: 451-462, 1898; Ibid., §:451, 1898.

Pohlmann performed experiments similar to those of Binet and Henri, noted later in this chapter, and found that in the presentation of isolated printed or auditory words, the rate of presentation is important, especially for the visual types, who are unable to transform the auditory images presented into visual images as rapidly as the auditory types.! Pohlmann also demonstrated by experiment that memory for concrete objects is greater than that for verbal impressions.? —

An experiment which is of considerable interest, the results of which have so far been published only in the following abstract, is that by Findlay.’

The investigations which the author undertook commenced in 1891 (after the visit of Professors Passy and Viétor to England) and have been continued under varying conditions up to the present. The specific problem presented for discussion is the mental processes at work in acquiring a foreign language (having on one side the ultimate aims presupposed by a teacher).

The writer observed and noted (a) his own experiences; (0) those of fellow students when acquiring a foreign tongue; (c) children — and students in small classes, sometimes taught intensively; (d) classes in a school in. Cardiff, 1898-1903, in which he was able with exceptional freedom to direct a codrdinated scheme of teaching, extending over five years; the classes were taught by a number ~ of able assistant masters, who codperated on common principles of teaching: the results were annually examined in detail by the Central Welsh Board (younger scholars orally, older scholars also in writing for junior and senior certificates); these reports are available for reference.

The important phenomena may be summarized thus: (a) The process is fundamentally one of acquiring habits of automatic reaction in the association of foreign symbols with ideas. (6) Dis-

!Pohlmann, A., Experimentelle Beitrdge zur Lehre vom Gedichinis, pages 71 ff. (Berlin; 1906).

2 Ihid., pages 145 ff.

3 Abstract of paper presented by Professor Findlay to the British wae tion Meeting at York, August, 1906. The Demonstration Schools’ Record, No. 1, page 69 (Manchester University Press; 1908).

tinctions between reading and hearing, speaking and writing, are of minor importance. (c) The employment of language (native or foreign) is a synthetic, not an analytic process; the recognition of the single symbol is merely a step (and often an unnecessary one) toward the immediate recognition of the general sense of a passage. But an equivalent in the vernacular may often be suggested for a moment and then encouraged to sink below the threshold of consciousness. 3

In contrast with other arts (compare golf) the special hindrance encountered in acquiring a second language is due to the extraordinary resistance of the native speech “center.’’ Hence to the beginner the path of least discomfort is to interpret the foreign symbol through the native symbol, and thus to set up a translation habit, which is really a bar to progress, since objects of thought can _ only be symbolized with effect when the objective, the thought, is directly expressed by the symbol appropriate to it. When once the establishment (mental and physical) of a new speech center is begun, with its accompanying set of experiences, the force of resistance rapidly diminishes. The rate of progress depends (a) upon the intensity of the learner’s absorption in the new art during the early stage; (b) upon suitable environment with appropriate objects of thought. When the new habit is established in only a small degree, traces abide for a great length of time, and can be easily recovered. A month’s residence among foreign people or a year’s course of school instruction suffices to overcome the resistance in its earliest and strongest stage. The use of a special phonetic script is of doubtful value to learners, except to adults who have received a philological training. The study of changes in nervous function accompanying the mental process is not at present adequate to confirm these conclusions, but inquiry into cases of aphasia among bilingual people may be expected to throw some light upon the nature of brain centers for foreign speech. The attempt to “‘establish” two foreign languages at the same time should not be made; each tends to inhibit the other. French, for instance, should hold the field for three years at least before German or Spanish is introduced. Latin, however, taken on a translation method, does not appreciably interfere.

Whether these principles are sufficiently established is not certain, since the description of the experiment is wanting as well as tabulation of results. They have high probability, since they are corroborated by other experiments given in these pages. ;

An experiment as to the number of words that can be assimilated efficiently was reported by Stockton in 1908.* The class involved was “small’’ and averaged 10 years of age. The course consisted of 16 weeks, 5 periods a week, of 20 minutes each, and 16 weeks, 5 periods weekly, of 30 minutes each. In all, 258 French words were learned and thoroughly assimilated. Many devices were used, such as giving the children French names, making mutations of sentences by using them in dialogue, i in series, etc.

This experiment is valuable in that it éctiphiatie the fact that only a very limited number of words can be thoroughly learned in an elementary course.

Schuyten? of Antwerp attacked the problem of translation from and into the foreign language. His experiment consisted in presenting in series, first the word of the native tongue followed by the foreign word, and in other series, first the foreign word followed by its native equivalent. Four classes of schoolboys memorized these series, whereupon the tests showed that the ability to recall the vernacular word on the presentation of the foreign word is frequently two or three times greater than the ability to recall the foreign word on the presentation of the vernacular; further, that in every case more permanent associations were formed when the foreign word was presented first. Only isolated words, not sentences, were used as material.

1 Stockton, C. E., “The First Year’s Course in French,”? The Demonstration Schools’ Rear No. 1, pages 59-73 (Manchester University Press; 1908).

2 Schuyten, M. C., ‘‘Experimentelles zum Studium der Gebrauchlichsten Methoden im Fremdsprachlichen Unterricht,” Zeitschrift fiir Experimentelle Pddagogik, 3: 199-211, 1906.

A laboratory experiment was conducted by Netchajeff ! in Petrograd in which he tested 64 adults in point of associations formed between foreign word and native word (F.N.) and native word and foreign word (N.F.) and picture and foreign word (P.F.).

The total results showed that the methods F.N. and N.F. are more advantageous for immediate retention as well as for forming lasting associations than the method P.F. Trials after an interim of 115 (123), 145 (146) days yielded the same results. Method P.F. also caused greater fatigue than methods F.N. and N.F. While these results do not agree with those obtained by other experiments quoted in this chapter, it should be observed that the subjects in this experiment were adulis.

Kirkman published the results of similar experiments performed with 151 young pupils, the object of which was to learn whether the object-foreign-word method or the foreign-word-native-word method of teaching individual words is more valuable for ‘““memory.” We see at once that this question is stated with little precision. Likewise the method of the experiment is open to criticism. The words were not standardized but left to the choice of the individual teachers conducting the experiment.” His results are favorable to the object method in the proportion 5.4 to 4.7.3 Taken in connection with the experiments of Peterson, Kirkpatrick, and Pohlmann, the experiment is of interest.

Note. A curious article viewed from the viewpoint of educational psychology is that of Senger. He counts the facts learned

1 Netchajeff, A., “‘Psychologische Beobachtungen zur Frage iiber den Fremdlindischen Sprachunterricht,” Pédagogische Psychologische Studien, Vol. 9, Nos. 1 and 2, 1908.

2 Kirkman, F. B., “An Experiment in Method,’ Modern Language Teaching, 4: 201-203. London; 1908.