Mental science and methods of mental culture, designed for the use of normal schools, academies, and private students preparing to be teachers

Front matter

§^up+ ©apjjrigijjt lfu+

Shelf .VJB6_

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Preface

TpDUGATION embraces the culture and instruction of the mind. This ""^ culture and instruction must be based on a knowledge of the nature of the mind and its activities. Such a knowledge is not only a necessity, but this necessity is now generally realized by educators and intelligent teachers. Never before in the history of education has there been so strong and wide a demand for works treating of the nature of the mind and its culture, as at the present time. With the view of meeting this demand, the present treatise is published.

Origin. — This treatise originated and grew up in the class-room. It is the result of many years' experience in the instruction of student-teachers in mental philosophy. Much of it was prepared and given to classes in written or printed notes for them to study and recite. These notes acquired a popularity outside of the school, and, by permission, were used in several other institutions. A demand was thus created for a text-book on the subject, and to meet the demand these notes have been rewritten and expanded into a complete treatise.

Extent. — The work presents a complete outline of the subject of Mental Philosophy, embracing the Intellect, the Sensibilities, and the Will. The treatment of the Intellect is especially full and detailed, as the teacher's work has mainly to do with the culture and training of this faculty. The Sensibilities and Will are discussed more briefly, but their treatment is comprehensive .and complete. While aiming at conciseness and simplicity in the explanation of each topic, the object of the author has been to discuss all the leading principles of the science, and thus present a complete treatment of the nature of the mind and the methods of cultivating it. The topics are so arranged that students who wish a shorter course can omit some of the less important points in the discussion ; and an outline is

4 PREFACE.

presented, indicating a twelve or fourteen weeks' course, which gives a connected view of the whole subject. (See page 12.)

The Material. — The subject of mental philosophy has been so thoroughly investigated that an author can hope to present but little that is new or original. The first object of a writer should be to state clearly the generally recognized views of the science, and this has been the primary aim in the present work ; it will thus be found to agree in the main with the best thinkers of modern times. The principal object has not been to be original in thought or expression, but to be clear, accurate, and concise. Nothing was put in because it was new, and nothing left out because it was old. I have aimed to produce a text-book which should contain, in a clear and practical form, the essential elements of mental science. I have not hesitated, however, to present such new views of the subject as my own thinking has suggested. There will thus be found, in the treatment of nearly every topic, some new idea, or some new phase or clearer statement of an old one. Some of the points peculiar to this work are the regarding of the cognition of the sensation as an act of perception, the giving of four distinct elements to the memory, the spontaneity of recollection, the reduction of all the laws of memory to the one law of the relation of ideas, the distinct assumption and proof of two elements of the imagination, making it a combining and a creating power, the formal including of the several ideas of Space, Time, etc., under the Intuitions of the True, the treatment of the Ludicrous as a rational idea, etc. Special attention is also called to the brief but comprehensive treatment of the Will, and especially of the doctrine of the Freedom of the Will.

Mental Culture. — The most striking feature of the work is the formal presentation of Methods of Cultivating the Different Faculties. This feature especially distinguishes the work from every previous treatise that has fallen under the author's notice ; and, it is thought, will render it especi. Ily valuable to the teacher and educator. To this part of the subject the author has devoted special labor, and having no previous treatment to guide him, his task was a difficult and embarrassing one. Much of what is given has been used in oral discussions in his teaching classes for many years, and in his lectures at teachers' institutes in different parts of the State. As he -was

PREFACE. 5

compelled by the limits of the volume to be brief, the discussions presented are mere outlines of what could be written on the subject. "It is proper to remark, also, that they do not come up to the author's ideal of what could be presented ; but they may serve to awaken an interest in the subject, and incite others to a fuller and more suggestive treatment of the culture of the mind.

Nature of the System. — The system of philosophy here presented is similar to that of the best English and American thinkers. In its general spirit it coincides with that of Sir William Hamilton, though it differs in many details from that illustrious author. It also agrees in spirit with much of the best German thinking on the subject of metaphysics. In its system of thought it is neither materialistic nor absolutely rationalistic, but aims to unite what is true in both of these schemes of philosophy. It holds that the mind is an entity distinct from matter and the author of thought, rather than that thought is a function of matter, as taught by the modern materialistic school of thinkers. It does not ignore, however, the physical basis of perception, and it therefore accepts one of the established facts of the materialistic school. But it rises above this school by assuming that the mind is an original source of truth, and that it can originate and comprehend necessary and universal principles. It thus rises from the lowest facts of materialism to the highest facts of rationalistic philosophy.

Relation to Religion. — The relation of its teachings to religion is one of the striking features of the work. Beginning with the sensations in the nervous tissue, it traces ideas up through the senses into the realm of abstract and general truth, and finally up into the domain of supersensual ideas and truths, and here finds the True, the Beautiful, and the Good. Here it reaches the conception of the Absolute and Infinite, and uniting these with the Good, it attains to the highest conception of the mind, that of God. Recognizing this idea in the soul as an immutable verity, and the elements of Faith, Love, and Obedience as associated with it, the work lays a philosophical foundation for the building up of that grand temple of belief found in the human soul, called Religion. This system of philosophy is therefore not only rational, but it is also religious.

A Text-Book. — The special merit of the work is that it is suitable for a

6 PREFACE.

text-book upon the science. The aim has been to present the subject with simplicity and clearness, and so that it can be readily understood and recited by the student. The student of a science needs a book in which he can prepare a lesson for the recitation of the class-room, and most books on mental science are deficient in this respect. In studying a new science, many subjects must be committed, and a text-book should present the matter in a form suitable for recitation. Every paragraph of this work has been written in view of the thought, How will this meet the demands of the recitation-room ? Thus prepared, it is hoped that one of its strongest claims on teachers and students will be its merit as a text-book. The value of the work in this respect has also been enhanced by the scholarly suggestions of Prof. E. Oram Lyte, who has kindly and with critical care read nearly all the manuscript.

In closing this preface, I desire to express the hope that the work may prove valuable to the young men and women of the country, in giving them clearer views of the dignity and power of the human mind and the necessity and nature of its culture. In my own classes the study of mental science has been the source of high inspiration in thought and culture, and has contributed largely to the great success of my pupils as teachers and members of the other professions. Recalling the many happy hours spent in the class-room discussing the themes here treated, I take pleasure in dedicating this, my latest, and probably my last work,

TO MY PUPILS IN MENTAL SCIENCE,

with the sentiment they have often heard me express that 1 would rather live in the hearts of my pupils than be honored in song or story.

EDWARD BROOKS.

State Normal School,

Millersville, Pa., Jan. 16, 1883.

CHAPTER III. The Nature of Attention

Definition and Nature .... 66 Can we Do Anything without

Attention? . . . .' . . . . 69 Number of Objects of Attention. 71

CHAPTER n.

The Culture of Attention.

Importance of Habits of Attention 75

Methods of Cultivating Attention 78

Securing Attention of Pupils . 79

THE INTELLECT.

PERCEPTION.

CHAPTER I. The Nature of Perception

Definition and Nature .... 85 The Nervous Organism . . . . 87 The Perceptive Process .... 90 Remarks on the Process ... 94 Perception by the Different

Senses .99

The Qualities of Bodies . . .110

CHAPTER II. The Culture of Perception

Neglect of Culture 115

Importance of Culture .... 117 Differences of Perceptive

Power 119

Time for Culture 120

Methods of Culture 121

Special Lessons 125

THE MEMORY.

CHAPTER I.

The Nature of the Memory.

Definition and Nature .... 127

Elements of Memory 128

Retention 129

Recollection 131

Representation 133

Recognition 13G

Contents

PAGE

Laws ot Memory 140

Nature of the Laws Primary Laws of Memory .

CHAPTER III. The Nature of Generalization, or Conception

Definition and Nature . . . .210 Process of Conception .... 210 Remarks on the Process . . 212 Nature of the Concept .... 214 Qualities of Concepts .... 218 Unfolding Conceptions . . . 221 The Value of General Ideas. . 223 Existence of General Ideas . . 223 Classification 225

PAGE.

CHAPTER IV. The Nature of the Judgment

Definition and Nature .... 228

Nature of Judgments 231

Derived Judgments 234

Conversion of Judgments . . . 235

CHAPTER V. The Nature of Reasoning

Definition and Kinds 237

The Syllogism 241

Deductive Reasoning 249

Another Form of Deduction . 251 Mathematical Reasoning . . 252

Inductive Reasoning 255

Criteria of Induction. . . . 258

Tests of Causal Agency . . 260

Hypothesis and Theory . . . .261

Analogy 266

Testimony 270

CHAPTER IX. The Culture of Reasoning

The Culture of Deduction . .297 Study of Mathematics . . .297 . Study of Language .... 301 Study of Metaphysics . . . 303

Avoid Fallacies 306

The Culture of Induction . . . 309 Inductive Teaching . . . .310 Study of Natural Science . . 312

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Inductive Thinking . . . .314 Avoid Fallacies 316

INTUITION.

CHAPTER I. The Nature op Intuition

Definition and Nature .... 319 Existence of this Faculty . . . 320 Relation to Other Faculties . . 322 Products of Intuition .... 325

Primary Truths 325

Nature of Primary Truths . 325 Existence of Primary Truths. 325 Tests of Primary Truths . .327 Remarks on Primary Truths. 328 Primary Ideas 330

CHAPTER II. The Intuitions of the True

Space

Time

Identity

Cause

331 333 335

CHAPTER III. The Intuitions of the Beautiful

Definition of the Beautiful . . 345 Subjective Theories . . . 346 Objective Theories 347

The Sublime 353

The Ludicrous 358

Nature of the Ludicrous . . 360 Forms of the Ludicrous . . 363

The Power of Taste 367

CHAPTER IV. The Intuitions of the Good

Nature of the Idea 371

Nature of the Right ... . .373

Origin of the Idea 378

Nature of Conscience .... 383 CHAPTER V.

The Culture of the Intuitions

of the True 390

CHAPTER VI. The Culture of the Intuitions of Beauty

Value of Beauty 396

Culture of the Beautiful ... 399

PAGE.

CHAPTER VII. The Culture of the Intuitions of the Right

Nature of Ethical Culture . . 405 Importance of Ethical Culture. 409 Principles of Ethical Culture . 412 Culture of the Different Duties. 417

Personal Duties 417

Duties to Others 421

Duties to God 424

THE SENSIBILITIES.

CHAPTER I. The Nature of the Sensibilities

Definition and Nature .... 433

The Simple Emotions .... 436 The Instinctive Emotions . . 436 The Rational Emotions . . . 438 The Egoistic Emotions . . . 439 The ^Esthetic Emotions . . 440 The Ethical Emotions . . .442

The Affections 444

The Benevolent Affections . 444 The Malevolent Affections . 447

The Desires 449

The Animal Desires .... 450 The Rational Desires .... 451

CHAPTER II. The Culture of the Sensibil ities

Importance of the Sensibilities. 455 Culture of the Emotions . . . 460 Culture of the Affections . . . 464 Culture of the Desires .... 468

THE WILL.

CHAPTER I.

The Nature of the Will.

Definition and Nature .

Freedom of the Will . .

CHAPTER II.

The Culture of the Will.

Importance of the Will. .

Culture of the Will . . .

Higher Spiritual Culture

475 484

493 497 502

A FOURTEEN WEEKS' COURSE.

This work presents the author's ideal of a complete professional course in Mental Science and Mental Culture. The following outline indicates a logical^ connected Shorter Course for students and teachers not having time to complete the entire work. The careful study of the parts indicated, in connection with the attentive reading of the chapters on the culture of different faculties, can be accomplished in about twelve or fourteen weeks.

PAGE

13-22 30-35

Nature of Mental Science

Faculties of the Mind . .

Consciousness.

Definition and Nature . . 43-46 Objects of Consciousness . 46-48 Products of Consciousness. 48-50

Attention.

Definition and Nature . . 66-69 Can we Do Anything without Attention? .... 69-71 Number of Objects of Attention 71-74

Perception.

Definition and Nature . . 85-87 The Nervous Organism . . 87-90 The Perceptive Process . . 90-94

Memory.

Definition and Nature . . 127-128 Elements of Memory . . . 128-140 Laws of Memory 140-148

Imagination.

. Definition and Nature . . 169-171 Products of the Imagination 171-173

Forms of the Imagination . 173-174 Laws of the Imagination . 174-178 Limits and Sphere of the

Imagination 178-183

The Understanding .... 201-203

Abstraction.

Definition and Nature . . 204-205 Products of Abstraction . 205-207 Other Views of Abstraction 207-209

Generalization.

Definition and Nature . . 210

PAGE

Process of Conception . . 210-214 Nature of the Concept . . 214-218

Judgment.

Definition and Nature . . 228-231 Nature of Judgments . . . 231-234 Derived Judgments . . . 234-235 Conversion of Judgments . 235-236

Reasoning.

Definition and Kinds . . . 237-241

The Syllogism 241-244

Deductive Reasoning . . . 249-252 Inductive Reasoning . . . 255-258 Hypothesis and Theory . . 261-265 Analogy 266-270

Intuition.

Definition and Nature . . 319-320 Existence of this Faculty. 320-322 Relation to Other Faculties 322-325

Products of Intuition . . 325-330

The Beautiful 345-353

The Good, or Right.

Nature of the Idea .... 371-373 Nature of the Right . . . 373-378 Origin of the Idea .... 378-383

The Sensibilities.

Definition and Nature . . 433-436 The Simple Emotions . . 436-444

The Affections 444-449

The Desires 449-454

The Will.

Definition and Nature . . 475-477

The Motive 477-179

The Choice 479-481

The Executive Volition . . 481-482

'00

ESTTKODUCTICOT.

I. Nature of Mental, Science.

II. Nature of the Mind.

III. Faculties of the Mind.

IV. Culture of the Mind.

MENTAL SCIENCE.

AND

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.

THE NATURE OF MENTAL SCIENCE.

MENTAL Science is the science of the human mind. It treats of the nature of the mind and the manner in which it operates. Its object is to ascertain the facts of mind and the laws which regulate its operations. The object of a text-book on Mental Science is to state these facts and laws in a clear, precise, and systematic manner.

Mental Philosophy. — The science of the mind is often presented under the name of Mental Philosophy. The term philosophy, however, is a little broader in its signification than science. Strictly speaking, Philosophy is the science of the true; in its more general sense, however, it means the investigation and explanation of the laws and principles of a subject. The word is derived from p/wfos, a lover, and sophia, wisdom, a philosopher being, literally, a lover of wisdom. The origin of the term is usually ascribed to Pythagoras, though Hamilton thinks it more natural to refer it to Socrates.

Psychology. — The technical name of the science of the mind is Psychology. Psychology may thus be defined as the science of the human mind. It has been divided into Empirical Psychology and Rational Psychology, according to the methods of attaining to the facts and principles of the science. The term is derived from psyche, the soul, and logos, a discourse, and thus means a discourse about the soul. It is interesting to notice that the relation of the term psyche in the Greek to a butterfly, carries with it the intimation of an early belief in the immortality of the human soul.

Anthropology. — The science of Psychology stands intermediate between two other sciences, — Physiology and Anthropology. All of these sciences treat of man, but in different ways. Physiology treats of the human body ; Psychology treats of the human mind ; while Anthropology treats of the entire man as body and soul. Anthropology investigates man as a complex whole, shows the influence of climate, soil, and physical surroundings on the soul and body, the influence of the soul and body on each other, and endeavors to ascertain all those circumstances and principles which determine the condition and character of the individual and the race.

Metaphysics. — The term Metaphysics has been sometimes applied to the science of the mind. This term, according to its etymological meaning, stands in contrast with the term Physics, or the science of matter. It has been used in a popular sense to include whatever is not embraced under Physics. In its narrower sense it maybe defined as the science of abstract truth. The term is said to have originated with the disciples of Aristotle. Several of his works relating to the material world, were collected and published under the title of ra Qvcnica; subsequently other works treating of philosophical subjects were arranged under the title of ra fxerarpvaiKa, indicating that they were to be read after the perusal of the other works. From this the term came to be used in the sense of embracing everything not included under Physics.

Other Branches. — The term Metaphysics, however, neither in its wider nor in its stricter sense, is properly used as the name of the science of the mind. There are many other branches besides mental science that may be included under the head of metaphysics. Thus, we have Logic, or the science of thought ; Ethics,

THE NATURE OP MENTAL SCIENCE. 15

or the science of the Right ; ^Esthetics, or the science of the Beautiful ; Politics, or the science of government ; •. Ontology, or the science of pure being, etc. These branches are very nearly coordinate with Psychology, the science of the mind, and may all be properly distinguished as metaphysical sciences.

The Nature op Science. — In order to have a somewhat clear notion of the nature of mental science, it will be well to obtain a general idea of the nature of Science and the elements of which it is composed. Science may be defined as organized knowledge. It embraces the facts and truths- of a subject systematically arranged and bound together into an organic unity by laws and principles. This statement gives a general idea of the nature of science, but the subject will be more clearly understood by noticing the character of the two general classes into which science is divided.

Two Kinds of Science. — There are two general classes of science, which may be distinguished as the Deductive and the Inductive sciences. A Deductive science consists of three things: first, ideas, which lead to definitions ; second, self-evident truths called axioms; third, derived truths or theorems. Arithmetic, geometry, etc., are examples of a deductive science. An Inductive science embraces several distinct elements : first, facts and 'phenomena ; second, the causes of these facts and phenomena ; third, the laws which govern these facts and phenomena. Natural Philosophy is a good example of an inductive science. A few of these sciences, as botany, consist principally of facts and scientific classifications. Some sciences partake of the nature of both of these two general classes.

These two classes of sciences are also distinguished as Rational and Empirical sciences. These terms indicate the origin of the elements of which they are composed. The Empirical sciences are those whose elements are derived from experience ; the Rational sciences are those whose elements are derived from the reason. The terms Inductive and Deductive, as applied to these sciences, indicate the methods of their development, the former being developed by inductive reasoning, and the latter by deductive reasoning.

Nature of Elements. — The elements of these sciences consist of ideas, thoughts, truths, facts, phenomena, causes, laius, etc. An Idea is a mental product which, when expressed in words, does not give a proposition; as, man, animal, triangle, polygon, etc. A Thought is a mental product which, when expressed in words, gives a proposition; as, a man is an animal, or a triangle is a polygon. A Truth is a true thought : a man is a quadruped is a thought, but not a truth. A Fact is a truth in the domain of experience; as, the -sun shines, or the mind remembers. The term Truth is often limited to self-evident and derived truths. A Phenomenon is an appearance; as, the twinkling of the stars: the statement of a phenomenon gives a fact ; as, the stars twinkle. A Cause is that which produces an event. A Law is the regular mode or order according to which something acts or takes place.

Origin of Elements — In the deductive sciences the ideas are usually given by intuition — as, the ideas of geometry, i. e., angle, triangle, circle, etc. The truths of the deductive sciences are of two kinds, axioms and theorems. The axioms are self-evident truths given also by the intuitive power, as, " all right angles are equal to one . another." The theorems are derived by deductive reasoning, as, " the sum of the angles of a plane triangle equals two right angles." In the inductive sciences the facts and phenomena are given by experience. The causes and laws are derived by inductive reasoning. The scientific classifications are given by generalization. In both classes of sciences the material is carefully classified and systematized.

Nature of Mental Science. — Having noticed the general nature of science, we are. prepared to see more clearly the nature of mental science. Such a general view will be of great value in the study and comprehension of the science. In order to pursue the study intelligently, we need to know the character of the knowledge we are acquiring, and the method of its development. We shall, therefore, present a brief statement, showing of what

THE NATURE OF MENTAL SCIENCE. 17

knowledge the science is composed, and how this knowledge is obtained.

Elements Embraced. — The science of the mind embraces several distinct elements. First, Ave have the facts pertaining to the mind, including the various faculties and their operations. Second, we have the laws which govern these activities. Third, we have a statement of the causes of certain facts and phenomena of the mind. Fourth, Ave have hypotheses and theories to account for certain facts and phenomena of the mind not readily understood. Fifth, these activities are attended Avith certain products, the nature and origin of which are also to be explained. All these are to be systematically arranged and presented.

Facts how Obtained.— -The facts of the mind, including its operations and products, are obtained by observation and experience. The operations of the mind are revealed to us by consciousness. In order to study mental science, then, Ave must first notice carefully the operations of our own minds. We can also, to a certain extent, observe the workings of the minds of others, and thereby gain some facts relating to the science of the mind. The nature of the mind is also revealed by the expression of its products in language. We can therefore study mental philosophy by studying the products of mind embodied in the language and literature of- a jDeople. Language has been expressively defined as " concrete metaphysics.''

Laws how Obtained. — The laAVS of the activity of the faculties are gained partly by experience and partly by an induction from the facts of experience. Some of the principles which govern the operations of the mind are revealed in consciousness or are given by intuition. Many of them are reached by a careful comparison of the facts and an induction of a general law from the particulars. The hypotheses and theories put forth to explain the facts are verified by reflection and reasoning. Some of the facts and laAVS, it is claimed, can be deduced from general a priori principles of the reason, but this is not so readily seen.

Similar to Natural Science. — In its development Mental

Science is similar to a natural science. In a natural science, as Natural Philosophy, we begin by the observation of facts ; we then seek for the causes of these facts and the laws which govern them. Thus, we observe the fact that certain bodies fall toward the earth; we then inquire after the cause, and find it to be the attraction of gravitation; we then ascertain the laws of falling bodies, and find that the distances are proportional to the squares of the times. So in mental philosophy we obtain facts by experience, and then search for the causes which produce and the laws which govern them.

Relation to Natural Science. — The nature of mental science may be better understood if we notice a little more closely its relation to the natural sciences, with which the student is supposed to be somewhat familiar when he enters upon the study of mental philosophy. There are several particulars in which these two sciences agree, and also several points of difference.

Knowledge of Each. — First, we know only the phenomena of each. We know matter by its properties, and mind by its activities. Of the essence or essential nature of matter, we know nothing ; and the same is true of our knowledge of mind. We know its operations and states, we are conscious that it perceives, remembers, imagines, reasons, that it loves, hates, desires, determines; etc. ; but what it is in its essential nature, in its essence — of this we are ignorant.

Development the Same. — The two sciences agree' also in the manner in which they are developed. They both consist of facts, the causes of the facts, and the laws which govern them. These facts, in both cases, are the result of experience. From the facts and phenomena we pass to their causes and laws. These are obtained by a careful induction from particulars, aided frequently by hypothesis and theory. All these elements are reduced to a system by the process of classification.

Hoiv They Differ. — While there is this general agreement in the manner of the development of the two sciences, there are also several differences. First, the facts in mental science are

THE NATUEE OF MENTAL SCIENCE. 19

given, not by an observation of things without, but by a consciousness of what takes place within the mind. The experience is one of reflection rather than of observation. Again, the inquiry after causes is not so prominent in the science of mind as in that of matter. The reason for this seems to be that the fact is more nearly related to its cause, or rather they are revealed in a closer connection with each other. The law is less a matter of induction and more a matter of intuition or philosophical insight in mental science than in natural science.

Not a Natural Science. — The relation of the two classes of sciences is so close that some thinkers regard mental science as a natural science. For this they adduce two reasons : first, their methods of. development are the same; and second, the mind belongs to the domain of nature. This view is not regarded as correct. The latter reason would make arithmetic and geometry natural sciences, since number and form belong to the natural world. Even though the methods of development are similar, the subject matter is so different that we are justified in regarding them as two different kinds of sciences.

Value of Mental Science. — In entering upon a new study it is natural for the student to inquire in respect to its value and use. This is especially the case in so abstract a science as mental philosophy, a science also of which the general scholar has so little knowledge. We shall, therefore, devote a few paragraphs to showing the value of a knowledge of mental science. We preface these remarks by speaking of the neglect of the study, and the reasons for this neglect.

The Study Neglected. — The study of mental science has been widely neglected. This neglect is due to several causes. One of these causes lies in the nature of the science itself: it is abstract and difficult for the ordinary mind to understand. Second, the mind turns more naturally to the concrete and objective, to that which lies without and has form and color, than to the formless and intangible operations and products of the human spirit. Third, the study of the material world seems to promise more practical results, as it deals with forces which serve man's convenience, and contribute to his comfort and material welfare. To build a railroad or invent a telegraph seems to be worth more to the world than to understand the laws of thought, or be able to discuss the freedom of the will. This is an age of action rather than of reflection ; and we must wait until " that period comes of golden affluence, and leisure, and elegant culture, that can at once appreciate and reward the higher efforts of philosophic investigation."