Market gardening

Front matter

IRLF

B 3

!! JHllI f iil

Preface

THE income from the sale of vegetables is practically twice that produced from the great fruit industries of the country. Only recently, however, is Market Gardening receiving the attention that it merits as a subject in which valuable instruction may be given in our schools.

The purpose of this little manual is to furnish, in a condensed and usable form, information concerning methods and best practices for growing and marketing the commoner vegetables. It is designed primarily for use as an elementary text on market gardening.

Methods for the propagation, preparation of the soil for, planting, cultivation, harvesting and marketing of twenty-three of the more common and hardy vegetables are considered in detail. In addition, such information is given concerning soils, fertilizers, moisture requirements, seeds, germination, the preparation and care of hot beds and the storing and packing of vegetables as is necessary to a reasonably complete understanding of the whole problem. A special chapter is devoted to the location, planning and care of home and school gardens.

Growers of vegetables in a small way for the home table, as well as those engaged in market gardening on a commercial scale, it is believed, will find this a practical, reliable and handy guide.

F. L. YEAW.

ROSWELL, N. M.

April, 1915.

iii

Storage Cellars and Pits — Storing Root Crops — Celery — Onions

and Cabbage — Packing 43

Chapter VIII Crops

Propagation, preparation of soil for, planting, cultivation, harvesting and marketing of the following : 1. Asparagus. 2. Beans. — 3. Beets. — 4. Cabbage. — 5. Brussels sprouts. — 6. Cauliflower. — 7. Celery. — 8. Cucumbers. — 9. Dandelion. — 10. Egg Plant. — 11. Horse-radish. — 12. Lettuce. — 13. Muskmelon. — 14. Onions.— 15. Parsnips. — 16. Salsify. — 17. Pea. — 18. Radish.— 19. Rhubarb. — 20. Spinach.— 21. Squash.— 22. Sweet corn. — 23. Tomatoes 53

' » 3 ••> }

LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN. CULTIVATION

THE location of the market garden is determined by a number of factors, the most important of which are market, soil, transportation facilities, labor supply, manure supply and water.

1. Market. The market, and nearness to market, are of first importance in choosing the location for the market garden. The grower must have a sure and dependable market for his products; the larger cities generally afford the steadiest and most dependable markets. Most of the products of the market garden are of a perishable nature; if the garden is not located close to a market, within hauling distance, the express or fast freight service must be efficient and dependable. The condition of the roads is of vital importance to the grower who intends to haul his produce to market with a team or auto truck.

2. Soil. The soil is of secondary importance to the market. A market must be had in which to dispose of the produce; but a good gardener can build up and improve the average soil so that it will produce good crops of most vegetables, while it might be impossible to create or build up a market.

The ideal market garden soil is a good sandy loam, under laid by a gravelly subsoil. Such a soil warms up quickly in the spring, never bakes or puddles, can be worked soon after & rain, can be worked early in the spring, is well drained and is adapted to a wide range of crops.

3. Exposure. The land should slope to the south or southeast. Such an aspect assures the earliest warming up in the spring, is , protected from cold north winds and g1 the greatest amount of sunshine.

FIG. 1. — Disc Harrow.

Windbreaks are desirable and may be temporary or permanent. Temporary wind breaks may be built by sticking brush into the ground or constructing a tight board fence along the exposed side. A more permanent windbreak is to be had by planting trees close together along the exposed side; this will, in time, form a compact hedge which is very efficient in breaking the wind.

LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 3

4. Labor. The market gardener is dependent upon a quickly available and cheap supply of labor. The large

FIG, 2. — The Meeker Smoothing Harrow.

cities are the sources of such a supply of labor. Intensive gardening must be done very largely by hand and a large

FIG. 3.— Double Wheel Hoe.

number of hands must be available, for a few months' time during the year, for the successful carrying on of the intensive market garden. The larger cities also furnish a large

LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 5

supply of horse manure which is most important in market gardening.

5. Water. A market garden is not completely equipped unless it has an abundant supply of water for irrigating the crops and for the preparation of the vegetables for market. The gardener should not depend upon the rainfall for the success of his garden. It is essential that water be available for irrigation whenever the conditions demand it. Practically every kind of vegetable is washed when being prepared for market and a good supply of pure water is necessary for this work.

6. Preparation of the Soil. After the manure has been applied, the ground should be well ploughed. Four to six inches is sufficient depth for ploughing in most cases; too deep ploughing is not advisable because new soil is brought to the surface which will take a number of seasons to come to a proper condition for the growing of vegetables. Following the ploughing, the soil should be thoroughly disced. A double cut-a-way disc harrow is the best tool to break up lumps and with which to get the soil into its best condition for the'planting of garden crops. The discing should be followed by an application of a high grade chemical fertilizer which should be mixed with the top soil by the use of a peg tooth smoothing harrow or by the use of a Meeker disc smoothing harrow.

When the soil is of an usually poor quality or is somewhat heavy and lumpy, it is advisable to follow the first discing with the plough. It may be necessary to plough the ground three times to get it into proper condition for such a crop as lettuce. The first and last ploughings may be shallower than the second ploughing when three ploughings are made.

7. Cultivation. The vegetable garden must have frequent and thorough, but shallow, cultivation. Most vege-

LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 7

tables do not root deeply but send their roots out quite near the surface. The cultivation, if carried on too deep close to the plants, is liable to injure the roots. The object of frequent cultivation is to keep down the weeds and to maintain a dust mulch for » the conservation of the water held in the soil. Cultivation lets the air and sunlight into the soil thereby favoring the development of certain beneficial bacteria and helping to make available the plant food applied to the soil.

FIG. 6. — Combined Hill and Drill Seeder and Wheel Hoe.

For the use of the seed drill the soil must be in a smooth, mellow condition, free from lumps or coarse material that would interfere with the planting or with keeping the rows straight. The Meeker smoothing harrow, Fig. 2, is the best tool on the market for finishing the ground previous to drilling in the seed. This harrow consists of four rows of small discs, placed close together, two rows of discs in front and two rows behind with a smoothing plank in the middle. This harrow will leave the surface in as fine condition as though the ground had been hand raked.

When the rows are close together and hand work must be employed, the choice of tools will largely determine the cost of the cultivation. The two-wheel and single-wheel hoes are commonly used in cultivating the smaller vegetable crops. The two-wheel hoe is designed and intended to run straddle of the row with a wheel each side and close to the plants. The various teeth and cutters furnished with the double or single-wheel hoes are adjustable so that the cultivation may be very close or farther from the plants. The single-wheel hoe is designed for use between the rows. There are a number of combination seed drills and wheel hoes on the market which are very desirable for the small grower, the cost of the combined tool being but little more than the cost of the seed drill alone. The best makes of the combination tools allow for the elimination of the seed drill or wheel hoe attachments as may be desired. Others make it necessary to use both the seed drill and the wheel hoe attachments at the same time; the drill simply being thrown out of gear and the teeth attached.

CHAPTER II FERTILIZERS

8. Kinds. There are three general sources of fertilizer, or plant food; stable manures, chemical fertilizers and green manures. The term " green manure " is used to designate such crops as cow peas, crimson clover, rye and other green crops grown for ploughing under. Such crops add humus to the soil and, when a leguminous crop is ploughed under, a considerable amount of nitrogen is also added to the soil. Green crops are usually ploughed under in the spring although it is often desirable to plough the crop under in the fall.

9. Stable Manures. Stable manures are more generally used than any other source of plant food for growing vegetables. In many instances, they are the cheapest source of plant food obtainable, as when the grower is located near a large city and the stable manure may be had at small cost or for hauling it away. In other instances, manure brings a good price and is often shipped long distances for the market gardener. Rotted stable manure is the best fertilizer for the garden, for not only is a supply of quickly available plant food added, but stable manure also furnishes a store of humus in its most desirable condition for readily incorporating with the soil. Stable manure runs comparatively low in its plant food value. It is estimated that a ton of partly rotted stable manure is worth about $2.00 for the plant food contained in it; it is of course worth more than this to the gardener because of its supply of humus.

Humus, or rotted vegetable matter, is indispensable for the successful growing of vegetables or any other crop. Humus makes the soil more friable, helps it to hold moisture, lightens a heavy soil and makes more retentive a light soil.

A soil deficient in humus is hard to work, bakes quickly after a rain, is slow to warm up in the spring and is very unfavorable for the use of chemical fertilizer. If humus is not present in a soil, the chemical fertilizer applied will largely be lost. The addition of humus renders the soil fit for the use of chemical fertilizers, and furnishes a condition favorable for certain chemical changes which constantly go on in the soil, and for certain friendly bacteria.

Other manures used in vegetable growing are sheep manure, hen manure, cow manure and hog manure. Hen and sheep manures are rich in nitrogen and their store of plant food is quickly available; they are valuable for use as a top dressing or for crops requiring unusual amounts of nitrogen. They are " hot " manures and must be used with care else the crops may be damaged by burning. Cow and hog manure are cold manures, their content of plant food is slow to become available except when they are well rotted.

10. Composting. It is not generally desirable to apply fresh horse manure to land intended for growing vegetables. Fresh manure tends to the production of top at the expense of the root in many crops. The general practice in using stable manure is to compost it for a considerable time before applying it to the soil. Rotted or partly rotted stable manure has it? store of plant food in a quickly available condition, which is very desirable in growing vegetables. The plant food contained in fresh manure is not so quickly available except the nitrogen in the form of ammonia.

Stable manure is composted by making the manure into a pile as soon as it is hauled to the market garden. Manure is generally hauled as fast as it is produced and is then built up into piles conveniently located for final distribution The pile should be about five feet high and as long and wide as necessary. As the pile is constructed, the manure should be firmed by tramping, and if very dry, the manure should be wetted sufficiently to prevent burning in the pile. When fresh horse manure is placed in a pile, fermentation takes place with a considerable amount of heat. The heat will cause the manure to fire fang, or burn. The pile should be examined frequently, and if it is showing a whitish or grayish color, the pile should be turned and watered lightly. It should be remembered that every time the pile is turned there is a consequent loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia; therefore handle the pile carefully and do not disturb it more often than is absolutely necessary. About six months time is ordinarily required for the proper composting of the manure.

Rotted stable manure is usually applied in the spring just previous to ploughing. After ploughing the ground should be thoroughly worked with a disc harrow. Fresh or partly rotted manure is best ploughed under in the fall; the procedure in the spring then is to thoroughly disc the ground before planting.

The rate of application of manure depends upon the condition of the ground and the crops to be grown. In intensive gardening, where the ground is not allowed to be idle during the growing season, from twenty to fifty cords of rotted manure per acre should be ploughed under each season. The average application is twenty to twenty-five cords.

11. Commercial Fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers are necessary for the maximum production from the area planted. Stable manures alone may furnish sufficient plant food for some classes of vegetables, but being unbalanced in their content of plant food, their use cannot be depended upon entirely for the successful growing of all vegetables. Manures have a relatively high content of nitrogen, and are usually deficient in the mineral elements of phosphorous and potash. To balance the ration of plant food, chemical fertilizers are used.

The plant food contained in manures becomes available rather slowly, except for the nitrogen which is in the organic form, ammonia. This becomes available very quickly, particularly if the manure is rotted.

Chemical fertilizers may be obtained in forms which are quickly available. This is important in intensive gardening where quick results are very desirable. Slow plant growth results in vegetables of inferior quality and oftentimes the yield is small in quantity. Slow growth tends to produce vegetables tough in texture and of poor flavor. Rapid growth produces tender, succulent vegetables of fine flavor. Then again, the more quickly a crop may be matured, the sooner it will become ready for harvesting and thus out of the way for succeeding crops. The use of chemical fertilizers enables the grower to raise a maximum crop of fine flavor and quality, and to produce the crop in the shortest time possible.

Chemical fertilizers should seldom be used alone; they give the best results only when used as an adjunct to stable manures. To get the largest results from an application of chemical fertilizers, the ground must be liberally supplied with humus, and must be in a high state of cultivation.

12. Nitrogen. The element necessary in the production of tender succulent stems and leaves is nitrogen, and it is therefore very valuable in the growing of such crops as celery, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, asparagus, or any crop grown for its top, or for early maturity. Nitrogen stimulates the plants and tends to produce a good growth in the early spring before the ground becomes thoroughly warmed.

13. Nitrate of Soda. The most available and therefore valuable form in which nitrogen may be supplied is known as nitrate of soda. The nitrogen becomes available as soon as the compound is dissolved, while if supplied in manures, dried blood, bone or tankage, these materials must decompose before their supply 'of nitrogen becomes available.

Nitrate of soda may be supplied alone or in combination with other elements. The rate of application varies with the richness of the soil and with the kind of crops grown. The method of application varies with the conditions; whether it is used as part of a complete fertilizer, or is used alone as a top dressing. Under most conditions the best results are obtained from sowing the nitrate broadcast, even when the plants are young and tender. If the foliage is dry at the time of broadcasting the nitrate of soda, none of it will adhere to the leaves but all will glance off to the ground.

Nitrate of soda may also be sown along the row quite close to the plants and then cultivated in, or it may be applied by any one of the numerous fertilizer distributors that are adapted for use in narrow rows.

Nitrate of soda is used as a part of complete fertilizers for vegetables. Such fertilizers should be broadcasted over the land, or applied with a fertilizer drill just preceding the final harrowing before seed sowing, or placed in the hill, or drill, at the time of planting. The amount of nitrate of soda to be used at one time will vary with the richness of the soil and with the character of the crop to be fertilized. The amount varies from a few pounds to as much as 250 pounds per acre. It is the better practice to make smaller and frequent applications rather than to make larger and fewer applications.

14. Other Sources of Nitrogen. Nitrogen may also be obtained from the use of dried blood, tankage, manures, raw or steamed bone and ground fish. Dried blood decomposes quite rapidly and its supply of nitrogen becomes available quickly. Tankage decomposes somewhat more slowly than does dried blood. Manures, raw bone and steamed bone decompose slowly. Ground fish becomes available slowly.

The supply of nitrogen in a complete fertilizer should have at least two sources, nitrate of soda, and another source such as dried blood or tankage.

16. Potash. Potash is particularly necessary in growing root croops, as carrots, turnips, beets, radishes, and parsnips. It is also important in growing other vegetable crops. Sandy or muck soils are usually very deficient in their supply of this element.

Potash is obtainable in several forms, muriate of potash being the most available form. Sulphate of potash is also a desirable form.

17. Phosphoric Acid. As most soils are deficient in phosphoric acid, the gardener must supply this element of plant food in some form. Phosphoric acid is very important in the growth of nearly all vegetable crops, the cereals being particularly benefited by it. A deficiency of phosphoric acid is indicated by small yields and the slow maturity of the crops.

Phosphoric acid is derived from several sources, the most important being Rock Phosphate, Thomas Slag, raw and steamed bone and tankage. The rock phosphates are the principal source of phosphoric acid for use in gardening.

18. Complete Fertilizers. Fertilizers containing all three of the principal elements of plant food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, are called complete fertilizers. The percentages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, vary with the crops for which they are intended, nitrogen being higher, for example, in a fertilizer for asparagus or onions, while a fertilizer for the root crops would be lower in nitrogen and higher in potash.

A fertilizer containing 4% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric acid, and 10% potash, is considered the basic fertilizer, but as has been indicated, the percentages vary with the need of the crops to be fertilized.

The rate of application of complete fertilizers is governed by crop requirements and soil conditions. The amount varies from a few hundred pounds to a ton or more per acre for a single crop. The average application per season in intensive gardening is 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, although the amount applied during the season may be as high as 4000 pounds or more.

19. Effects of Chemical Fertilizers on the Soil. Excessive applications of chemical fertilizers tend to cause soil acidity. In instances where the supply of humus is not kept up, the soil will become hard and unproductive, as well as acid.

To remedy these conditions, the supply of humus must be maintained and liberal applications of lime made as required. The amount of lime to apply varies with soil conditions; a ton to the acre is usually sufficient for most soils, although as much as three tons per acre are sometimes required to neutralize an acid soil.

20. Effects of Lime. Soil acidity is neutralized by applications of lime, the physical and chemical condition of the soil are improved, causing plant food to be liberated and to .become available. Lime, by neutralizing the soil acidity, renders the land unfavorable for the development of the club foot of cabbage and other crops belonging to the same family. Most garden crops do best in a soil slightly alkaline and applications of lime bring about this condition. The best results are obtained when the lime is applied in the spring.

21. Methods of Application. Fertilizers and lime may be sown broadcast over the land or applied with a fertilizer drill. The drill is far preferable to hand sowing, both for uniformity of application and for convenience. Lime should never be applied with manure, because it liberates the ammonia which will then be lost. The manure should be ploughed under and the ground then harrowed, after which apply the fertilizer or lime, just previous to the time of planting, and harrow it in.

22. Green Manures. Green manures and stable manures are the best sources of humus. While the growing of crops for green manuring, or for cover crops is not generally practiced by the market gardeners, humus must often be obtained by ploughing under green crops.

Cover crops, and crops grown for green manures, are divided into two classes, leguminous and non-leguminous. Crimson clover, red clover, cow peas, and vetch are examples of leguminous crops. Rye is a commonly grown non-leguminous crop.

23. The Legumes. The legumes have the ability to take nitrogen from the air and to store it up in nodules which grow on their roots. When a leguminous crop is ploughed under, not only is humus added to the soil, but some fertilizer in the form of nitrogen is also added.

The clovers are usually sown in the spring or early summer following an early crop of vegetables. The procedure varies as to when the crop is to be turned under. The crop may be allowed to grow during the season of sowing, and all of it ploughed under the following spring, or a cutting may be had and then the second growth ploughed under. This may be done either in the fall or spring, depending upon whether an early planting is desired. For early results, the crop should be ploughed under in the fall.

Cow peas and Canadian field peas are desirable leguminous crops used for green manuring. Neither of these crops is hardy and they must therefore be ploughed under in the fall. The Canadian field pea is one of the best of the crops grown to add humus to the soil.

24. Non-Legumes. Rye is considered more of a catch crop than most of the cover crops grown. It may be sown quite late in the fall, and will make a good growth even in a rather poor soil. Very often poor soils are built up by first growing rye on them, which is turned under and followed by some leguminous crop.

25. Ploughing Under. The older or more mature a green crop becomes before ploughing under, the longer it will take for the crop to decompose and for its plant food and humus to become available. The more mature the crop when ploughed under, the more danger there is that the capillarity of the soil may become more or less disturbed, because of the layer of undecayed vegetable matter underlying the ploughed soil. The furrow should be turned on edge as much as possible to avoid- this condition. Thorough discing is a great help in restoring the soil to its former capillarity, and also in cutting up the green crop ploughed under.

26. Effects of Green Manuring. Green crops are valuable and desirable sources of humus, but the rotting of green crops when ploughed under has a tendency to leave the soil somewhat acid. Before attempting to grow all kinds of vegetables in soil on which a green crop has been grown and ploughed under, an application of lime must be made to neutralize the acidity.

27. Catch Crops. Green crops are often grown as catch crops. After the ground is cleared in the fall, or even before the crop is off the ground, a sowing may be made of crimson clover or rye. Crimson clover is often sowed between the rows of sweet corn when the last cultivation is given. Such catch crops may be grown as sources of humus, or as is often the case, they are grown to hold the soil and to prevent washing. Catch crops being grown only through a limited season seldom grow to much size.

CHAPTER III HOT BEDS

28. Uses. Hot beds are used to start plants ahead of season, thereby enabling the grower to mature such crops as tomatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, peppers, and many others earlier than their normal period of maturity. They are also used to grow such crops as radishes, lettuce, and green onions for marketing.

Hot beds are often used for protection, either in the spring or fall. Plants may be planted in a hot bed in the spring and allowed to remain in them until the danger of frost is passed, when the beds are removed; or the hot beds may be used in the fall for maturing crops after the frosts begin.

29. Location. The hot beds should be constructed on a well drained piece of ground with a south or southeast exposure. The beds should be protected against cold winds. This may be done by taking advantage of natural wind breaks, such as hedges, board fences, or buildings. A temporary protection may be afforded by erecting frames and putting hot bed mats on them.

30. Means of Heating. Hot beds are usually heated by fermenting manure, although steam or hot water are sometimes employed as sources of heat. The coils of pipe are hung on the frames, and pipes incased in tile are buried in the soil. The tile prevents too rapid drying out of the soil.

Hot air is used for heating hot beds by constructing a furnace outside and at the end of the hot bed, and burying

MAKKET GARDENING

HOT BEDS 21

the flue in the hot bed. The flue should divide into two lines and unite again at the farther end of the bed. Tile is commonly employed in building the flue, although brick may be used.

31. Construction. Manure heated hot beds are constructed by digging a pit fifteen to thirty inches deep and six feet wide and placing over it a frame as long as may be desired. The front of the bed should be six inches lower than the back so that the glass may have the proper slope toward the sun. The common practice is to build the front six inches high and the back of the bed twelve inches high. Fig. 8, which is a cross-section view of a hot bed, shows the general features of construction. The frame should be strongly constructed of durable lumber, such as chestnut or cypress planking, and 2X4 inch posts. Cross bars should be placed from the front to the back of the bed at regular intervals to stiffen the frame.

The frame of the hot bed is constructed to support the sash, which is commonly 3X6 feet, and glazed with 10X12 inch glass. Smaller glass is sometimes used, but three sections of 10X12 inch glass is preferred by most growers. Sash is often made and used in sizes larger than 3x6 feet, but larger sash is much heavier and more awkward to handle, also a bed over six feet wide cannot be worked advantageously. The sash should be made of cypress or cedar to assure durability.

The depth of the pit is determined by such factors as the time of year, whether the weather is severe or mild, and the kind of crop to be grown. Such crops as radishes or lettuce do not require so much heat as do tomatoes or peppers.

32. Preparation of the Manure. Horse or mule manure may be used as a source of heat. The manure should be freshly gathered, or else should be manure that has not been heated. Place the manure in a pile about six feet wide and four feet deep and as long as may be necessary. The manure should be prepared under cover of a shed for best results. As the pile is constructed, the material should be shaken out and well firmed with the back of the fork or by lightly tramping.

The pile should be examined often, and as soon as a good heat is generated, it should be turned, taking care

^3L Manure

Manure

FIG. 8. — Cross-section of a Hot Bed.

that the outside of the pile is placed in the centre of the new pile. Examine the pile carefully and in two or three days the fermentation will again have become well started heating the manure thoroughly. The manure is then ready to put into the pit.