A manual of British archæology

Preface

The following pages have been written with the single object of being useful to students of archaeology at the outset of their inquiries. They will, accordingly, be found to range over as wide a space as possible, without ever attempting to be profound ; and in both matter and manner they have purposely assumed the simplest aspect.

Had not conciseness been my object, the limits of my volume would have rendered it necessary. As it is, these limits have compelled me to leave some subjects of the utmost archaeological interest without any farther notice, than a glance at the fact of their existence.

a 2

IV PREFACE.

It will be observed that this volume professes to be only a " Manual of British Archaeology." There, consequently, are many subjects upon which it will not be expected to treat. I have, however, considered it desirable to introduce brief notices of many of the art-processes and productions of past times, which only so far fall within the scope of British archaeology, that they are sure, in a greater or a lesser degree, to attract the attention of British archaeologists.

As far as possible I have selected examples for illustration and reference from such early remains as I am myself familiar with ; and I have, in most instances, preferred those that are generally well known. At the same time, I have not hesitated to make a free use of the various elaborate and able treatises which the archaeological tastes of the last few years have called forth.

The illustrations of this volume, selected by myself, have been drawn and engraved by the skilful and experienced hand of Mr. Orlando Jewitt.

PREFACE.

The reader will permit me to remind him that he is not to expect this manual to prove, on a small scale, a royal road to archaeology : far from this, my aim here has been but to provide a guide sufficiently humble to engage the attention and to facilitate the advance of those, who might pass unnoticed productions of a higher order. My desire is to attract persons who may be disposed to become students of archaeology to take up the subject in earnest, and to enter upon a course of careful inquiry and diligent research. They will find an abundance of materials awaiting them — materials which will prove equally attractive and valuable. There is a goodly array of archaeological books already in existence, and the subject yet remains very far from being exhausted. Every year also adds largely to the long list of relics which the student will soon learn to regard as the best exponents of archaeology.

C. B.

April 20th, 185S.

Chapter I

Sect. 1. Introductory .... „ 2. Roman Remains „ 3. Anglo-Saxon Remains „ 4. The Anglo-Norman Style „ 5. Anglo-Norman Details „ 6. Anglo-Norman Castles „ 7. Transition to the English Gothic Style „ 8. The English Gothic Style . „ 9. English Gothic Houses „ 10. English Gothic Castles „ 11. The Gothic Style in Scotland and Ireland

PAGE

Chapter II

Sect. 1. Sculpture 71

„ 2. Wood-Carving 76

„ 3. Fresco, Wall-Painting, and Polychrome . . 78

„ 4. Mosaic 80

Vlll

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Sect. 5. Coloured Glass 82

„ 7. Iron-work 94

„ 8. Bronze-work 96

„ 9. Lead-work 97

„ 10. The Precious Metals 97

,, 12. Nomenclature 100

Chapter III

Sect. 1. British Sepulchral Monuments before the Roman

Period 102

„ 2. Anglo-Roman and Anglo-Saxon Monuments . 104

„ 3. Anglo-Norman Monuments — The Stone-Coffin . 110

„ 4. Monumental Slabs 113

„ 6. Incised Monumental Effigies . . . .129

„ 8. Semi-Effigial Slabs ,141

„ 9. Tombs, Canopies, and Chantries . . . 147

„ 10. Late Monuments 149

„ 11. Churchyard Monuments . . . . .150

Chapter IV

Sect. 1. Introductory 151

„ 2. The Shield, and its Divisions .... 155 „ 3. Tinctures, Eurs, and Diapers . . . .156

CONTENTS.

IX

PAGE

Sect

Heraldic Devices and Accessories

. 158

Blazonry

. 162

j>

Marshalling ......

. 161

Differencing ......

. 168

jj

Badges

. 170

. 171

Knightly Insignia

CHAPTER V. Sect

Classification of Seals ....

The Great Seals of England

Examples of Various Seals ....

CHAPTER VI. Sect

j)

Ancient British Coins ....

Anglo-Saxon Coins ......

Anglo-Norman Coins ....

English Medals

Roman Coins

Roman Medallions

Chapter VII

Paleography, Illuminations, and Inscriptions Sect. 1. Introductory ..... „ 2. Early Byzantine and Roman Illuminations

215 215 217

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Sect. 3. Early Irish Illuminations 218

„ 4. Anglo-Saxon Illuminations of the Eighth and

Ninth Centuries 219

„ 5. Anglo-Saxon Illuminations of the Tenth and

Eleventh Centuries . . . . . .220

„ 6. Illuminations of the Twelfth Century . .221

„ 7. Illuminations of the Thirteenth Century . . 222 „ 8. Illuminations of the Eourteenth Century . . 223 „ 9. Illuminations of the Fifteenth Century . . 225

„ 10. Illuminations of the Sixteenth Century . .227

Chapter VIII. 239 239 240 241 243

Sect. 1. Introductory .... „ 2. The Stone, or Primaeval Period . „ 3. The Bronze, or Roman Period „ 4. The Iron, or Anglo-Saxon Period „ 5. The Anglo-Norman Period, extending to the close

of the Twelfth Century 245

„ 6. The Thirteenth Century— Period of Mail Armour 248 „ 7. The Eourteenth Century— Period of Mixed Armour 253 „ 8. The Eifteenth Century— Period of Plate Armour . 258 „ 9. The Sixteenth Century— Period of the Decline of

Armour 261

„ 10. The Seventeenth Century— Period of the Disuse of

Armour 263

CONTENTS.

XI

Chapter IX

Costumes and Personal Ornaments . , Sect. 1. Ecclesiastical Vestments and Habits „ 2. Lay Official Costumes . „ 3. Costumes of Ladies „ 4. Costumes of Civilians . „ 5. Personal Ornaments

CHAPTER X. Pottery, Porcelain, and Glass

„ 2. Ancient British Pottery

„ 3. Roman-British Pottery

„ 4. Anglo-Saxon Pottery .

„ 5. Italian and French Keramic Manufactures

„ 6. Flemish and German Stone-ware .

„ 7. Porcelain ......

„ 8. English Pottery and Porcelain

„ 9. Glass

PAGE

CHAPTER XL

Sect. 1. Decorative Processes applied to Metals

„ 2. Clocks and Watches ....

„ 3. Locks, Keys, and Decorative Iron-work

„ 4. Ivory Carvings, Cameos, and Intaglios .

„ 5. Mosaics

„ 6. Painting in Oil .....

„ 7, Embroidery .....

Xll

CONTENTS.

Sect. 8. Furniture 345

„ 9. Wood-Engraving and Typography . . . 346

Chess and Playing-Cards 348

English Shipping in the Middle Ages . . . 349

12. Monastic Orders 351

13. The Nimbus and Emblems of Saints . . . 356 British, Roman, and Saxon Earthworks and Encampments 359

10. 11.

Glossary of Architectural Terms Index or Buildings and Places Index or Names and Titles General Index ....

363 368 373

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I.— ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.— CAPITALS.

Tig. 1. Chancel Arch, St. Peter's, Northampton, (Anglo-Norman).

— 2. North Transept, York Cathedral, (Early English Gothic).

— 3. West Front, York Cathedral, (Decorated Gothic).

— 4. Cloisters, Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford, (Perpendicular

Gothic).

PLATE IL— ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.— WINDOWS.

Fig. 1. Lancet Window, Stanton Harcourt, Oxon, about 1220, (exterior).

— 2. Interior of the same.

— 3. Two-light Window, Woodstock Church, Oxon, about 1240.

— 4. Three-light Window, Slapton Church, Northants, about

PLATE III.— HERALDIC AND WALL DIAPERS.

Fig. 1. From the Tomb of William de Valence, Westminster Abbey, a.d. 1296.

— 2, 3, 4, 5. From Queen Eleanor's Cross, Geddington, Northants,

about 1300.

— 6. Shield of Robert de Vere, Hatfield Broadoak Church, Essex,

— 7. Shield of William de Valence.

XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE IV.— COLOURED GLASS.

Tig. 1. From Chetwode Church, Bucks, about 1300.

— 2, 3. Borders from the Choir of Bristol Cathedral, fourteenth

century.

PLATE V.— PAVEMENT TILES.

Fig. 1. Prom the site of Chertsey Abbey, Surrey.

— 2. Prom Wheathamstead Church, Herts.

— 3. From St. Alban's Abbey Church.

— 4. From Great Malvern Abbey Church.

PLATE VI.— MONUMENTAL SLABS.

Fig. 1. At Haltwhistle Church, Northumberland, about 1300.

— 2. At Gilling Church, Yorkshire, about 1350.

PLATE VII.— MONUMENTAL BRASS.

Part of a Brass to an Ecclesiastic, Merton College Chapel, Oxford, about 1375.

PLATE VIII.— TOMB WITH EFFIGY AND STONE COFFIN.

Fig. 1. Tomb and Effigy of Sir John de Sutton, Hull, a.d. 1339.

— 2. Stone Coffin, Lincoln Cathedral, (Anglo-Norman).

PLATE IX.— HERALDRY. SHIELDS AND CRESTS.

Fig. 1. Shield of Raymond, Count of Provence, Westminster Abbey, about 1250.

— 2. Shield of Edward the Confessor, Westminster Abbey, about

— 3. Shield of Percy, from the Percy Shrine, Beverley Minster,

about 1350.

— 4. Shield of Prince John of Eltham, Westminster Abbey,

— 5. Crest and Cap of Maintenance of the Black Prince, Canter-

bury Cathedral, 1376.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV

PLATE X.— HERALDRY. BADGES.

Fig. 1. Badge of Spencer.

— 2. Dacre.

— 3. De Bohun.

PLATE XL— HERALDRY. BANNERS, &c.

Fig. L. Pennon of Sir John D'Aubernoun, Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, 1277.

— 2, 5. Standards of Henry VIII.

— 3. Royal Banner of Richard II., Felbrigg, Norfolk.

— 4. Banner of St. Edmund.

PLATE XII.— SEALS.

Fig. 1. Great Seal of Edward I.

— 2. Personal Seal.

— 3. Device Seal.

PLATE XIII.— INSCRIPTIONS.

Fig. 1. From Tomb of King Henry III., 1273.

— 2. Queen Eleanor, 1291.

— 3. ■ King Edward III., 1377.

— 4. Alianore, widow of Thomas of Woodstock,

_ 5, 6. ■ King Richard II., 1399.

All in Westminster Abbey.

PLATE XIV.— CELTS.

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Bronze Celts from Buxton, Alderney, and Banbury.

— 4. Stone Celt, from Stanton Fitz-Warren.

PLATE XV.— ARMS AND ARMOUR.

Fig. 1. Bronze British Shield.

— 2, 3. Bronze Swords.

— 4. Bronze Spear-head.

— 5. Iron Spear-head.

XVI LIST OP ILLUSTKATTONS.

Tig. 6. Iron Battle-axe.

— 7. Iron Dagger.

— 8. Bronze Dagger.

— 9, 10. Iron Arrow-heads.

PLATE XVI.— ARMOUR. HEAD-PIECES, &c.

Pig. 1. From the Brass to Sir John D'Aubemoun, a.d. 1277 ; and

— 2. From the Brass to Sir John D'Aubernoun the younger, a.d.

1327. Both at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey.

— 3. From the Brass to Sir Hugh Hastings, Elsyng, Norfolk, a.d.

— 4. From the Effigy of Lord Montacute, in Salisbury Cathedral,

— 5. From the Brass to Sir Ivo Fitz-Waryn, in Wantage Church,

— 6. From the Brass to Sir Robert Staunton, Castle Donington

Church, Leicestershire, a.d. 1458.

PLATE XVII.— BEADS.

Figs. 1 to 18. Various British and Anglo-Saxon Beads.

PLATE XVIIL— PERSONAL ORNAMENTS.

Fig. 1. British Armilla Torque of gold.

— 2, 3, 4, 7. Anglo-Saxon Pendant Ornaments.

— 5, 6. Anglo-Saxon Bronze Fibulae.

PLATE XIX.— POTTERY.

Figs. 1, 5, 6. British Urn and Vases, found in Guernsey.

— 2. Roman Amphora, found at Chesterford, Cambridgeshire.

— 3. Small Roman Vase, found at Shefford, Beds.

— 4. Roman Samian Vase, found at Chesterford.

PLATE XX.— ENAMELS.

Fig. 1. Reliquary of Limoges Enamel on copper, gilt.

— 2, 3, 4. Roman Enamelled Fibulas.

MANUAL

OF

BRITISH ARCHEOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION.

The history of the human race is, for the most part, unconsciously written by the successive generations of men in the works of their own hands. These works — in the first instance generally produced for present use — remain long after their authors have passed away from the busy scene of life. From year to year and from century to century the vast series of human productions continually accumulates, and the past is for ever adding fresh stores of visible and tangible relics to its all-comprehensive historical museum.

During the last few years public attention has been attracted in a very remarkable manner to the investigation and study of early remains, of whatsoever kind and in every region. An antiquarian taste has thus

B been formed, and antiquarian pursuits have become both prevalent and popular. The term Archaeology (which strictly signifies the knowledge of things ancient) has been adopted and recognised to denote the antiquarian researches and studies of the present day, with their results. Archaeological Societies have been formed with the twofold object of exciting a still more widely extended interest in these researches and studies, and also of conducting them more systematically and with a greater concentration of energy. In both respects the Societies have already accomplished much : more particularly they have been successful in awakening intelligent inquiries, in engaging sympathy, and in securing co-operation. Archaeological meetings — now as regularly looked for as they are regularly held in all parts of the kingdom — are invariably attended with gratifying results. People find that there is an object in archaeology, and so they become archaeologists. They learn, perhaps to their surprise, that archaeology has a much higher aim than to determine to what remote ages certain ancient relics may, with probable accuracy, be assigned. Instead of this, their attention is invited to the historical teaching of everything with which archaeology deals :

they are led to regard ancient relics as expressions of the human intellect and as illustrations of human sentiments, and habits, and requirements, under conditions differing very widely from those of our own day : they are taught to examine, to collect, to classify, to analyse early remains, with the view either to elicit from them fresh facts as new elements of knowledge, or to adduce, through their instrumentality, fresh evidence which may corroborate and elucidate facts already known and accepted : they discover, in a word, that archaeology is in reality a system of monumental history, of which the peculiar interest is greatly enhanced from the circumstance that it always closely associates the producers themselves with every object that has been left by them for us to discover, perhaps, as well as to examine. History which thus assumes a biographical aspect, while it is built up at every stage upon a series of contemporaneous monuments, can scarcely fail to command attention. There is also their own attraction inseparable from the early works themselves. Either curious, or singular, or strange, or beautiful, or noble, and sometimes combining many varied qualities, these relics would very generally be found to repay the care of the

b 2 archaeologist even without his extending his inquiries to their historical teaching. Accordingly, when the true character of archaeology is for the first time appreciated through being for the first time understood, it is easy to conceive that the ranks of archaeologists, on these occasions, rarely fail to have their numbers increased. Such, indeed, is the sure result of a well-conducted archaeological meeting : volunteer recruits are gained, and they enter upon their new study in earnest, with zeal and with the determination to persevere ; and their first inquiry is, very naturally, for some simple manual which will guide them in the eaidy stages of their researches, and upon which they may rely for general information respecting archaeology, conveyed in a concise and popular form. Hitherto it has been impossible to return to such inquiries any other reply than that such an elementary book would be very desirable and that it really is much needed, but, unfortunately, nothing of the kind has been produced.

It is the object of this little volume to supply this deficiency at the outset of our archaeological literature, and to provide for students such a Grammar of Archaeology - as may consistently introduce them to works of a higher order and a more comprehensive range.

In the preparation of its pages the utmost brevity and simplicity have been carefully observed. The aim of the writer has been to classify and arrange such elementary facts as will be found most useful by persons who are entering upon a course of archaeological inquiry, and to set them forth in a plain and popular manner. All more detailed descriptions, with the varied results which have crowned the labours of our most distinguished archaeologists, he leaves the student to seek from other sources. The more advanced student will find an abundant supply of valuable works, which treat of almost every possible subject that is embraced within the comprehensive scope of archaeology ; and should he seek for information upon some one special topic, or upon one particular class of works of early art, he will be able readily to lay. his hand either upon a monograph, or a series of essays and papers, which will prove to be precisely what he requires.

It is not, however, merely to what has been written upon archaeology that this elementary volume would introduce the student and inquirer. Copious, indeed,

D INTRODUCTION.

learned, interesting-, and eminently valuable, are the books and periodicals which have attended the recent progress of the career of archaeology ; and yet there exists a field for inquiry and study which possesses a still stronger claim upon the archaeologist, and also promises him a more abundant recompence. This field is thickly strewn with the actual relics of the past. All that architecture has accomplished in bygone ages is here. Here are what time has spared to us of the creations of early sculpture and painting. Caligraphers, moneyers, goldsmiths, heralds, armorers, engravers, here have brought together, in long succession, their multifarious productions. Here, also, are assembled the works of keramic artists and glassmakers, with all the other varied objects that former races and generations of men have devised, and made, and used, and bequeathed as their contributions to the history of their species.

The young archaeologist will do well to enter upon a course of practical investigation from the very first. Gladly availing himself of such aids as have been provided for him by those who have preceded him in the same course, he will never neglect an opportunity for acquiring information by means of his own personal observation. While he reads, and takes extracts from what others have written, and collects good engravings, he will write his own descriptions of what falls under his notice, and he will illustrate these descriptions carefully and fully with his own pencil. Such habits need but to be formed to ensure their permanence ; for the knowledge thus acquired is by far too delightful to be neglected, or for the pursuit of it to be forsaken. It is the same with archaeology as it is with natural science. New qualities thus are imparted to objects through the power of association. In the one case natural productions assume a dignity, and are clothed with a beauty, which cannot be appreciated without at least some acquaintance with the grand laws and sublime harmonies of nature. Archaeology, in her turn, discloses the monumental and historical character of the early works of man ; and hence these works become invested with claims upon our regard and attention, which before we could have neither understood nor recognised. Thus the archaeologist sees in the lonely tumulus much more than a picturesque upheaving of the turf; and he discovers hidden treasures of thought and reflection even in the old church, which from his childhood he had regarded with mingled sentiments of reverence and admiration.

His researches amongst the various remains of early art cannot fail to impress the student of archaeology with a high admiration for the taste and the true art-feeling, and also for the exquisite mechanical skill, displayed by men who lived in ages which he may heretofore have regarded as altogether immersed in intellectual darkness. Let him seek to form a just estimate of those ages and of the generations of his race who then nourished. Neither yielding to an extravagant enthusiasm, nor being influenced by an unworthy indifference, let him soberly weigh the real merits of the workers and the works of the olden time. He will thus be led to feel that no intrinsic value is attached to any object merely because of the fact of its being ancient ; but that sterling excellence, and felicitous adaptability, and genuine beauty, and the faculty of historical illustration, alone constitute the worth of early works and relics. And, as he pursues his researches in this spirit, he will find himself surrounded by an ever-enlarging circle of that practical knowledge, which may be continually applied both to his own improvement and to advance the well-being of his generation.

Section I. Introductory

The history of British architecture may be said to commence in the eleventh century; and it is not until after the accession of the Norman dynasty that it can be considered to have assumed any definite form. Fragments of architectural works of various earlier periods are, indeed, in existence in our county; but these remains, however valuable as illustrations of general history, can scarcely claim for themselves a distinct recognition in the history of the art of architecture as it flourished during past ages in Britain.

British architecture comprises Two Styles, the Anglo- Norman and the English Gothic. Of these two styles, the former prevailed until the third quarter of the twelfth, and the latter until the middle of the sixteenth century. A brief period of transition intervened between the final disuse of the earlier style and the complete establishment of its successor; and the Gothic, while maintaining throughout its career the distinctive characteristics of a single style, is found to have passed through three distinct artistic periods, and to have assumed as many definite forms of expression.

It will be of the utmost importance for the student, while carefully discriminating between the three phases of the Gothic of Britain, to keep in remembrance the fact that these are not three different styles, but that the three make up the one style. It must also be borne in mind that, in the middle ages, the same style of architecture was invariably applied, at each period, to every varietv of edifice. Buildings of one class may now remain in considerable numbers, and of other classes but occasional relics may have passed through the ordeal of the lapse of ages ; yet, when these different works were planned and constructed, they were all equally true to the architecture of their own era. Whether Anglo- Norman or English Gothic, the style was equally applicable, and it was applied alike to the cathedral or the village church — to the feudal castle or the civic guildhall — to the monastery or to the private dwelling-house.

ROMAN REMAINS.

The architecture was the architecture of the time : whatever buildings were required, those it was ready to produce, and it did produce ; and it was always able to adapt itself to varying circumstances and different conditions, without even the slightest infringement of its own principles, or any departure from its own practice and traditions.

Section II. Roman Remains

The flourishing condition of Britain as a Roman province is clearly proved by the existing remains of edifices which were constructed, during their occupancy of this island, by the Romans themselves. These same remains also bear no less conclusive witness to the strife and violence which succeeded, after the departure of the Romans from these shores. Thus, while foundations, pavements, and the lower portions of Roman buildings are continually brought to light by means of various excavations, it is rare indeed to find above the surface of the ground any works which were constructed by Roman builders.

We may without hesitation adopt the opinion that the temples, villas, and other public and private buildings erected in this country by the Romans were both numerous and important ; and we know that the Roman style of building was in itself well calculated for endurance. Roman architecture, also, and the building materials in use by the Romans, must have been understood, and their value appreciated by the native islanders; and consequently, the disappearance of genuine Roman edifices, followed by the complete disuse of Roman architecture, would seem of necessity to have resulted from a protracted condition of civil convulsion and foreign invasion.

Roman foundations are found to have been formed with much care and skill, and to this day they often retain unimpaired their original firmness and security. With the foundations, and the hard concrete on which they rest, pavements of tessera, or small cubes of different materials and various colours, arranged in patterns, are frequently discovered, and they generally are in excellent preservation; also, flues for heating, and the structural arrangements for the bath — that important department in a Roman (and, indeed, in every) house — constantly occur. The mortar used in these works is remarkably hard and tenacious, and almost always contains pounded

ROMAN REMAINS. 13

brick, the building materials themselves being generally very hard, thin bricks, varying in size from about eight inches square to one foot six inches by one foot, and always less than two inches in thickness. In addition to these, flue-tiles have been discovered, and other varieties of bricks or tiles, which were specially adapted to particular purposes. In the Construction of walls the Romans used their large flat bricks in bands or layers, consisting of either a single course, or of two or more courses, at intervals varying from about one foot to four feet apart, for the purpose of binding together the rubble (or rough flint masonry) of which the mass of the structure was formed. Where stone was to be obtained, it was freely used by the Romans in their buildings : large stones were set without mortar, but mortar was used when the stones were of small size. The binding courses of bricks were sometimes introduced into regular stonemasonry. It was also a common practice with the Romans to face a wall, on both sides, with cut stone, and to fill in the central mass with rubble.

Roman bricks, and possibly bricks made subsequently after the Roman fashion, were extensively used by the early Norman builders, and sometimes also by their

Saxon predecessors, as at St. Albans, Brixworth, Darentb, Guildford Castle, &c.

Section III. Anglo-saxon Remains

The intercourse established between England and Normandy during' the first half of the eleventh century led to the adoption by the Anglo-Saxons of many usages then already prevalent amongst the Normans. The more general use of stone instead of timber for building purposes was not the least important of the improvements thus obtained. The great impulse at that period given to the erection of churches also led to the introduction of Norman architects and masons ; and thus the way was cleared for the establishment of Norman architecture in England after the Conquest. Much difference of opinion still exists with reference to the early edifices, parts of which may (it would seem) be certainly attributed to Saxon times. It will be sufficient here to describe those peculiarities, which by general consent have been considered to indicate a condition of architecture anterior to the accession of the Norman dynasty in England. It will be observed that these peculiarities distinguish parts of buildings, of which other parts have

ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS. 15

evidently been erected at later periods. These Saxon remains are very rudely constructed of rough masonry, the mortar being of very inferior quality, and the walls having (apparently in all cases) been plastered over on their exterior surface. The quoins, or angle-masonry, are of hewn stones, set alternately on end and horizontally, and hence denominated "long and short work." The walls are very thick, without buttresses, and sometimes built of herring-bone work, or stones set diagonally, the inclination of the courses being alternately to the right and the left. Narrow flat strips of masonry, of " long and short " construction and slight projection, ornament the surfaces of the walls, sometimes in tiers, and with the addition of small semicircular arches or triangles formed of similar stones. This ornamentation may have been derived from the ancient timber-framing. The arches of doorways and windows are rounded, or sometimes the openings have triangular heads; the jambs (or perpendicular sides) are formed of " long and short " work, and they carry either rudely-carved imposts (blocks of stone laid horizontally) or capitals with square abaci. Sometimes rude and heavy mouldings run round the arches ; and where two or more arches are conjoined as an arcade, these arches are carried on heavy, low shafts, formed like balusters, and encircled with rude bands. When these baluster-shafts carry arches pierced in thick external walls, they are set in the midst of the thickness of the wall, and support long stones reaching through the wall. Arched openings in walls splay from both the exterior and interior, and the actual piercings are in the mid-thickness of the walls. These peculiar features will not all be found in any one building ; but in the tower of Earl's Barton, in Northamptonshire, more of them occur than in any other known example. The triform m in the transept at St. Albans may also be specified as containing some highly characteristic specimens of Anglo-Saxon baluster-shafts. It is certain that before the Norman Conquest several churches, of very considerable size, were completed in this country : thus the Confessor erected his abbey church at Westminster, and Edmer of Canterbury has left us a description of the metropolitan cathedral before it was rebuilt by Lanfranc in 1070. Anglo-Saxon remains are generally found in close association with genuine Norman work ; and it may be considered that the architecture of the Saxons, however rude, exercised a certain

ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE. 17

amount of influence upon the Norman style after it had become naturalized in England .

Section IV. The Anglo-norman Style

Having secured their position as the dominant race in Britain, with surprising energy the Normans applied themselves to the task of erecting cathedrals, churches, abbeys, castles, and other important edifices, throughout the length and breadth of the land. The magnitude of many of these buildings is no less remarkable than their numbers; and they are characterized by that bold, simple, and massive grandeur, which, notwithstanding their comparative rudeness as works of art, always commands respect, and rarely fails to win admiration.

In this style the walls are massive, self-sustaining, and without buttresses. The masonry, whether of rubble or ashlar, at the first very rude and with wide joints, becomes gradually better executed ; but the stones continue to be of a small size, and in every course the stones are invariably of the same height, so that the lines of mortar are continued throughout the work, each of them in the same straight line. The buildings are often both very spacious and very lofty. The more im-