The making of modern Egypt

Front matter

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Contents

Scheme of the book — SamnuLiy of caosei which led to the revolt of 1882 — The career of MnhAmmad Ali— Despotic character of hk rule—Abb^ Pasha—Said Pasha— Reckless ezpenditnrt of Ismail Pasha — His indebtedness — Effect of his finanrial difficulties on his subjects— Political situation at advent of Tewfik Pasha — Military outbreaks of February and September, 1881 — Subsequent inddents arising therefrom — Appeal to arms in the drcumstanoes unjustifiable — Sketch of origin and expansion of KhediTiate — SuooessiTe firmans granted by the Sultan— Present position of the KhediTe with regard to his Suzerain ....... I

CHAPTER I THE MISSION OF LORD DUFFBllIN

Brief recapitulation of events in Egypt from 1876 to 1883 — Institutioo of the Dual Control in 1876— Of the Caisse de la Dette Publkiue— of the Commission of Enquiry into the financial system of Ismail Pasha —Appointment and dismissal of European Ministry — InsolTency of Ismail Pasha— His £U1 — Succession of his son, Tewfik Pisha— Law of liquidation of 1880 — Disturbances caused by military revolt ending in battle of Tel-el- Kebir— Surrender of Aribi Pasha — Suspension of Dual Control — Commencement of this narrative from arrii^ of Lord Dufferin in Egypt— Trial and exile of rebel officers— Effect of sentences on Khedive's authority — Lord Dufoin's Report — His difficulties— His instructioos — His recommendations — Situation in the Soudan at the time of Lord Duffierin's Report— Views of the Cabinet in London as to treatment of the Soudan queitioD 19

Chapter II Thb Gathbking Op Thb Stokm

Departure of Lord Dufferin — ^Appointment of Sirdir — Of Chief of the Constabulary— Of Procureur-G^^ral— Of Financial Adviser— Colonel Scott-Moocreiff summoned from India— Legislative Council and General Assembly deaeed— Appointment of Indemnities CommiiiloD viii CONTENTS

rAGB

—Cholera io Egypt— Transfer of Agenqr from Sir Edward Malet to Sir Evelyn Baring— Departure of Sir Edward Malet— Position of affairs in Egypt at time of Sir E. Baring's arrival— State of affairs in the Soudan— Enforcement of economies in Egypt— Decision of British Government to withdraw from Soudan — Sir Evelyn Baring's concurrence therein— Resignation of Sharif Pasha's Ministry— Nubar Pasha forms a Ministry— Khedive's approval of withdrawal from the Soudan ........ 3^

Chapter III The Khedivb And His Ministers— The Mission To Khaetum

Sketches of some of the Khedive's Mmisters— Sharif Pasha— Riyiz Pasha —Nubar Pasha— Character of the Khedive— Necessity of deputing an officer of high authority to the Soudan — Ignorance of British Cabinet as to the condition of affairs in the Soudan — Qualities required in the officer to be selected— Choice of General Gordon • 5^

Chapter IV

General Gordon's past career — Instructions issued to him in London — His Memorandum thereon — Further instructions issued in Cairo^Explanation of apparent discrepancy between London and Cairo instructions — General Gordon endorses a policy of evacuation— His Memonmdum of February— His letters and telegrams en route to Khartum— Arrival at Khartum— Presses nomination of Zebehr Pasha as his successor— Change in General Gordon's views as to evacuation— Decline of his influence in the Soudan — His resolve to stand by the beleaguered garrisons — Refuses to evacuate — Misapprehension of the situation in the Soudan prior to General Gordon's arrival in Khartum— Selection of General Gordon for the business of evacuation an error 60

Chapter V Suakin— Reorganization In Egypt

Despatch of Osman Digna by the Mahdi to Suakin— Defeat and massacre of the Egyptians under General Baker at El Teb— Position in the Soudan at the close of February, 1884— Dissension and difficulties in Cairo— Formation and growth of Egyptian Irrigation Department — Tobacco Convention with Greece — Commercial Convention with other Powers . • ^3

Chapter VI

Economies Committee appointed in Cairo— Suppression of Council of State— -Necessity of revising the Law of Liquidation of x88o—

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

Attitude and attnbates of the Caine— Circular of Lord GranTille to the Powers, with the view of modifying the Law of Liqnidatioii — Propoiab of the British Cabinet— Committee of British experts assembled in London to report on the E^jptian financial situation- Report of the Committee^ketch of the provisions of the Law of Liquidation— Meeting of International Conference in London- French opposition and ooonter proposals — Cooferenoe separates without result . .95

Chapter VII The Nokthbrook Mission— Thb Sbttlbmint

Mission of Lord Northbrook to Egypt — Sinking Fund suspended, by his advice — Action brought by the Caisse against the Egyptian Government — Resumption of Sinking Fund — Arguments for and against Lord Northbrook's action — ^Addition of German and Russian members to the Commissioners of the Caisse — Settlement of the question as to the salaries of the new Commissioners — Distress and dinatisfitction in Egypt— Incident of the " Bosphore Egyptien " .108

Chapter VIII Post Tbnbbras Lux

Retirement of British troops from the Soudan — Resumption of financial negotiations with the Powers— Lord Northbrook's proposals not aoceptaUe — ^Arrangement come to, and embodied in Khedivial decree of July 27th, 1885 — Substance of the arrangement — Bearings of the settlement on the finances of Egypt — Difficulties of British Government aggravated by general fears of impending evacuation, caused by its own language, and by that of the British Press . • 1 18

Chapter IX Undbr Closb Canvas

Commencement of new phase in Egyptian matters with Convention of 1885— First fiunt signs of improvement— Financial policy of Sir Evelyn Baring and Mr. Vincent— Period of enforced economies- Value of Mr. Fitzgerald's services— French officials in Egypt— Outbreak of brigandage : its cause — Revision of coinage— Description of the new coins brought inro drculation * 131

Chapter X Thb Dbummond Wolff Mission

Mission of Sir Henry Drummond Wolff to Egypt— Inconsistent attitude of suceesrive British Governments during nineteenth century towards the Sultan of Turkey— ObjecU of Sir H. Drummond Wolff's Mission—

CONTENTS

PAGE

Text of Lord Salii bury's instnictioDs — Convention ngiied on October 14th, 1885, at Constantinople— Sir H. Drummond Wolff and Ahmad Makhtar Paaha proceed to Cairo— Failure of Minion there—Sir H. Drummond Wolff signs a second Convention on May 22nd, 1887, at Constantinople — Opposed by Russian and French Ambassadors — Sultan declines to ratify the Convention— End of Sir H. Drummond Wolff's Mission— Comments on the incident .143

Chapter XI

THE LABOURS OF SIE BDGAR VINCBNT AND THB IRRIGATION AND MILITARY OFFICBRS

Budgetary situation in Cairo in 1885 and 1886— Nubar Pasha*s attitude- Abolition of corvee — Diplomatic opposition to financial measures proposed in connexion therewith — Protracted negotiations — Pension code —Commutations of pecuniary pensions into land— Tobacco duties — Irrigation — The Army ...... 159

CHAPTER XII THB khalifa's DRBAMS— PAYMBNT OF TUB SUSPBNDBD COUPONS

Projected invasion of Egypt by the Khalifit — His letter to the Queen- Empress — His visions— Wad Baghdiwi — Payment of the suspended coupons, and resumption of payment in fiill — Financial results of 1887— Mr. Vincent's arrangement with the Caisse, as to the Sinking Fund — Settlement of the claims of ex-Khedive Ismail— Gradual improvement in the finances .178

Chapter XIII

RBTIRBMBNT OF MR. VINCBNT— RBSIGNATION OF NUBAR PASHA— POLICB AND TRIBUNALS

Remissions of taxation— Mr. Vincent's retirement— His views on the financial position — Mr. Palmer appointed Financial Adviser — Resignation of Nubar Pasha — His characteristics — Difficult position of British officials — Nubar and Riyic unsuitable to changed circumstances—General Baker and Mr. Clifford Lloyd's schemes of Police — Brigandage Commission — Analogy of India . 187

Chapter XIV Reform And Rbvival

The Mixed Courts— The Consukr Courte— The Mehkemeh Sharaiyeh— The Reformed State Tribunals— Efforts at improving them— Appointment of Mr. Scott as Judicial Adviser— Difficulty of introducing reliable indigenous Courts of Justice into a country of low morale — Progress in irrigation— Agricultural roads .... 202

CONTENTS

Chapter XVI

of jodces— Creates a Cn— iffff of Ja iiieiit»— Namber of jadfes m Coon of Appeal

CHAPTER XVn

CHAPTER XIX

THE OLD OEDBR CHANGBTH

Death of Tewfik Pasha— His successor— Characteristics of Tewfik— His sound judgment — His estimate of his position— Abb^ Hilmi— Ill-feeling of Egyptians towards British from 1893 to 1898— Lord Rosebery's despatch of February i6th, 1893— Comments on the present situation — Contract for construction of the Assouan dam and reserroir— Cost— Benefit to Egypt— The Assiut and ZifU barraget— Their object .147

CHAPTER XX

THB BND OF THE DBRVISH BULB

Condition of the Soudan under the Khalifa— Gradual decay of his power —Recapture of Tokar— The Bagg^bras— The narratiyes of Father Ohrwalder and Rudolf Slatin — The tribes desert Abdullah — The efficiency of the Egyptian army— Advance on Dongola— Occupation of Berber— Battle of Omdurman— Death of the Khalifii— 2:ebehr in retirement— Attitude of the Caisse— Doom of Internationalism . 257

CHAPTER XXI

ADMINISTRATIVE BBFOBMS

Marked progress after 1896— Use of private enterprise — Electric tramways — Light railways— -Cholera and sanitation — Growth of revenue — Finery reforms — Census of i896<— Its results — Filling up of the Khalij — Creation of National and Agricultural Banks — Indebtedness of fellaheen — Liquidation of Daira Sanieh estates by a company — Sale of Khedivial steamships to a company — Cost of reconquest of Soudan — Retirement of Sir Elwin Palmer — Appointment of Mr. Gorst — Salt monopoly made over to a company — River tolls abolished — Further reforms in fishery system— Extension of telephonic system — Return of cholera— Octroi abolished in Cairo and Alexandria— Unexpected rise in market prices — Probable expenditure on irrigation from 1884 to 1908 ......... ayi

CHAPTER XXII

THB STATE DEPARTMENTS

Mr. Mcllwraith's reforms— Larger expenditure— Increase of judicial fees — Summary and Markax Tribunals— Village Tribunals— Courts of Circuit— Views of the Judicial Adviser— Revised Penal and Procedure

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V xiv CONTENTS