Main currents of modern thought : a study of the spiritual and intellectual movements of the present day

Front matter

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN LIFE

As Viewed by the Great Thinkers, from Plato to the Present Time.

Preface To The Fourth Edition . . . .21

INTRODUCTION :

The Present State op Affairs and the Task with which it presents us . . . . . . .23

A. THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF SPIRITUAL LIFE

(b) The Nineteenth Century . . . . .44

(c) The Positive Position . . . . . . 53

1. Introduction . . . . . . .53

2. The Fundamental Concept of the Spiritual Life . . 57

3. The Relationship between Man and the Spiritual Life . 60

4. The Results as they affect the Concept of Truth . . 62

2. THEORETICAL — PRACTICAL (INTELLECTUALISM —

VOLUNTARISM).

(b) Voluntarism . . . . . . .70

(d) Our own Position : Activism . . . . .79

(e) Intellect and Intellectualism . . . . .81

L The Invasion of Modern Life by Intellectualism . . 82

2. The Life-Process as the Foundation of Knowledge . . 85

3. The Quest for Truth and its Motive Power . . .89

4. Consequences in the Sphere of Knowledge . . .93

5. Consequences with regard to the History of Philosophy . 96

(b) The Conflict of Practical Ideals .... 101

1. Nineteenth-century Realism ..... 103

2. The Limitations of the New Realism .... 105

CONTENTS

PAGE

3. Criticism of the Traditional Forms of Idealism . . 107

4. The Problem of Reality . .• . . . .110

5. The Necessity for a New Idealism .... 113

B. THE PROBLEM OP KNOWLEDGE

1. THOUGHT AND EXPERIENCE ( METAPHYSICS) .

(b) The Right of an Independent Philosophy . . . 129

(c) The Tendency towards Metaphysics .... 141

(d) The Pursuit after Knowledge : a General Survey . 149

(e) Estimation of Rationalism and Empiricism . . . 155

2. MECHANICAL— ORGANIC (TELEOLOGY).

(a) On the History of the Terms and Concepts . . 165

(b) On the History of the Problem .... 169

(c) The Present-day Conflict ..... 182

1. The Philosophical Aspect of the Problem . . . 182

2. The Scientific Aspect of the Problem .... 185

3. The Problem in the Social Sphere . . . .189

3. LAW.

(6) The Problem of Law in the Modern World . . 201

C. THE WORLD-PROBLEM.

(a) The Concepts : Historical and Critical Remarks . . 215

(b) The Monism of To-day . . . . . .230

(a) On the History of the Term ..... 240 (6) On the History of the Concept and Problem of Evolution 242

(c) The Complications and Limitations of the merely Evolu-

tionary Doctrine ...... 255

(d) The Requirements of a New Type of Life . . . 272

D. THE PROBLEMS OF HUMAN LIFE.

1. CIVILISATION (OR HUMAN CULTURE).

(a) On the History of the Term and Concept . . . 281

1. The Nature and Value of Civilisation .... 288

2. The Problem of the Content of Civilisation . . .291

3. The Uncertainty in the Relationship of Man to Civilisation . 294

CONTENTS 7

PAGE

(c) The Requirements op a True Civilisation . . . 298

1. The Necessity of a Deeper Foundation . . . 298

2. The Necessity of an Inner Development of Civilisation . 302

(a) Towards the Development op the Problem . . . 308

(b) Demands and Prospects ...... 318

Appendix: The Concept "Modern" .... 330

3. SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL (SOCIALISM).

(a) The Relationship between Society and the Individual . 341

2. The Problems of To-Day :

a. The Inadequacy of a merely Social Civilisation . . 351

/3. The Inadequacy of a merely Individual Civilisation . 363 y. The Necessity for an Inner Overcoming of the Antithesis 373

(b) The Social-Democratic Movement .... 374

(a) The Present Insecure Position op Morality . . 385

(b) Morality and Metaphysics ..... 388

(c) Morality and Art ....... 393

1. On the History of the Problem . . . . .393

2. The Problems of the Present Day :

a. Modern iEstheticism ..... 400 f3. The Position of Art in Modern Life . . . 404

(a) Personality ....... 409

1. On the History of the Term . . . . .409

2. On the History of the Concept ..... 412

3. Investigation of the Problem ..... 414

1. On the History of the Term and Concept . . . 422

2. The Present Position . . . . . .425

(a) Introduction ....... 431

(6) Remarks on the Determinist Position . . . 434

CONTENTS

E. ULTIMATE PROBLEMS.

PAGE

(a) Intkoduction : On the History of the Terms . . 447

(b) The Perplexities of the Present Situation . . . 449

2. THE KELIGIOUS PROBLEM (IMMANENCE — TRAN- SCENDENCE).

(a) On the History of the Terms ..... 462 (6) The Trend of the Modern World towards Immanence . 464

(c) The Complications in the Concept of Immanence . . 467

(d) The Revival of the Religious Problem . . . 469

(e) The Demands made by the Present Position of Religion . 471

CONCLUSION 479

INDEX 481

The present work is a translation of the 4th edition of the Geistige Strbmungen der Gegenwart (Veit & Co., 1909).

I have endeavoured throughout to render the sense of the original in the simplest English I could command, but I have not attempted to secure exact literal accuracy. Considerable care has been taken to bring the terminology as far as possible into line with that employed in the other English translations of Eucken's works.

Eucken's earlier writings were historical, his constructive works being of comparatively recent date. The Main Currents of Modern Thought forms a link between the two periods ; it starts from a broad historical basis and presses forward to positive construction. Here we may follow the growth of Eucken's philosophy, from its roots, lying far back in the historical work, to its full flower, as seen in the positive philosophy itself. While the Jena professor's other recent works concern themselves in the main with the general exposition of his convictions, the present study reveals in detail the extensive groundwork upon which these convictions have been built up, and in particular it illustrates the various steps by which the author has been led to adopt the concept of the spiritual life as the basis of his whole philosophy.

Eucken's method is one of elimination. One by one he examines the various attempts at a synthesis of life with which the thought of the day provides us. One by one they are found to be incomplete or to be involved in inner contradictions, while in each case it is seen that a recognition of an independent spiritual life would remedy the incompleteness or remove the contradiction. Far from being a mere assumption (as will certainly be supposed by those who are suspicious of the term "spiritual"), the spiritual life is thus seen to be nothing less than a necessity. Through its recognition alone can we explain the known content of the universe.

For those who are commencing a study of Eucken's thought a few words with regard to the exact meaning of the concept " spiritual life "may not be out of place. As this concept is the key to Eucken's whole philosophy, it is of the utmost importance that it should be clearly understood. The matter is perhaps best approached through a consideration of the most popular philosophy of the present day, namely, that general view of life which (whether it be called agnosticism, positivism, empiricism, materialism, or naturalism) declares that we know only that which is revealed to us through the senses, that man is not essentially anything more than a higher animal, and that there is no spirit (man's entire psychic life being regarded as no more than a mere product of natural forces) ; the higher is thus made entirely dependent upon the lower. Far different is the aspect of affairs when looked at from Eucken's point of view: the living spirit (or the spiritual life) now stands at the very centre of the universe, and is itself the most central and positive reality of which humanity can have any knowledge : " a spiritual life transcending all human life forms the ultimate basis of reality." This life is more primary than matter itself (the concept of matter being, in reality, one of the vaguest and most uncertain in the whole realm of thought) . The recognition of an independent spiritual life is the first step towards all further knowledge and the first necessity of any adequate view of life as a whole. The spiritual life is not derived from any natural basis. It is not a product of evolution. It is superior to all time and to all change : " change (and with it evolution) is absolutely out of the question as far as the substance of spiritual life is concerned." It is entirely distinct from the whole realm of natural phenomena, and, as Eucken himself says, in spiritual life we have to do " with something essentially different from any process following natural laws." The spiritual life works within the natural sphere, but it works as an independent reality ; it is itself superior to the whole mechanism of nature.

This life must be conceived of as something quite distinct from the human intellect and from every kind of merely human psychic life. The spiritual life is itself the foundation of truth and knowledge. It is cosmic, absolute and eternal.

It will at once be asked, If the spiritual life be thus independent and absolute, how can man have any part in it, how can it affect him ? Why, in short, should we bother about it at all ? In reply to this Eucken would maintain that man's relationship to the spiritual life is the most immediate and vital of all human interests, for this life is itself the very centre of man sown being. The spiritual life does not depend upon man, but man depends upon the spiritual life. In an external sense man may be natural, but in an internal sense he is spiritual, he belongs to the spiritual reality which is behind the whole universe. It is the spiritual life within him which distinguishes man from the animals and forms the root of his unique unifying capacity, as well as of his ethical and religious nature. Spiritual reality thus works within man, but it is not of man. Man attains to his spiritual self by rising above his human self; and only by thus rising does he become independent, for the merely human self is involved in a network of natural processes from which the spiritual life alone is free. The spiritual life is " a cosmic force operative in man " ; here man finds a strength greater than his own. The ethical value of Eucken's philosophy lies in its recognition of a spiritual world of cosmic power and absolute and eternal values, a world set above the relativity of human affairs and yet present to man as an ethical imperative. Nor is the ethical point of view lightly to be ignored. A satisfactory philosophy of life must make room for man's ethical nature ; as Balfour says {The Foundations of Belief, p. 356): "No unification of beliefs can be practically adequate which does not include ethical beliefs as well as scientific ones ; nor which refuses to count among ethical beliefs, not merely those which have immediate reference to moral commands, but those also which make possible moral sentiments, ideals, and aspirations, Mid which satisfy our ethical needs. Any system which, when worked out to its Legitimate issues, fails to effect this object can afford no permanent habitation for the spirit of man."

There can be no doubt that our inner life demands an authority which shall be objective and absolute (that is, truly authoritative), and at the same time present within man in such a way that its commands are felt to be inwardly compelling and not forced upon man by some external power. I should like to quote an extremely significant passage from Principal P. T. Forsyth's very valuable work Positive Preaching and the Modern Mind (p. 61) ; speaking of what he calls the " inmost authority " he says : "It emerges and wells up under psychological conditions, but it is not a psychological product ... it is not ourselves, it is objective. . . . The thing most immanent in us is a transcendent thing. ..." In order to attain to this inner spiritual world man must fight a battle ; he must overcome the resistance of his non- spiritual nature, which is in perpetual conflict with his spiritual self. The spiritual life is not immanent in man in such a fashion that he can possess it without effort ; it is present " as a possibility " — it rests with us to lay hold of it. Man cannot participate in the spiritual life without continual and active effort ; hence the name — Activism — which Eucken has assigned to his own type of thought. Eucken's philosophy is therefore marked by a strong dualism. There is a sharp division within man's own nature, a conflict of forces, a struggle for supremacy, a slow and laborious ascent to a world of new and permanent values, to " a new stage of reality." We read that "man stands at once in time and above time" that he lives " on the boundary of time and eternity, on the horizon where the two run together," and again that " man is the meeting place of different stages of reality, nay, of opposed worlds."

It is not, however, Eucken's intention that reality should finally be looked upon as falling apart into two separate worlds ; on the contrary he regards spiritual life and nature as being, ultimately, stages of a single reality. Man, however, occupies a position at which a transition from the lower to the higher stage has to be effected. He must not therefore allow the distinction between nature and spirit to be obliterated. At the same time Eucken's ultimate goal is a monism — not naturalistic, as it is hardly necessary to point out, but spiritualistic in character.

" We have become insecure with regard to all our ideals, nay, with regard to our own being ; we no longer draw upon a common groundwork of convictions, of uniting, directing, elevating forces. In spite of all subjective activity, an inner decline of life is unavoidable if this uncertainty should continue to spread." This brief quotation will suffice to indicate Eucken's attitude towards the life of to-day. He is profoundly convinced that the peoples of to-day, absorbed in the pursuit of material things, intent upon bettering their environment and intoxicated by the surprising triumphs of technical science, have increasingly lost touch with those central spiritual realities without which life can have no meaning or value. In a single phrase, the interests of the modern world are in the main peripheral rather than central. Eucken is not only a philosopher ; he is a prophet. His aim is to lead humanity back to central realities, to act as a centripetal force in a world of centrifugal tendencies. He seeks to call attention to the great truth that the whole fabric of human civilisation rests ultimately upon a spiritual basis. It is his belief that the supreme need of the age is a comprehensive, positive philosophy of life to serve as a rallying point for the scattered and divided forces of humanity. The old syntheses of life, which were satisfactory in their day and generation, are now breaking up and there is need for a new and wider synthesis. Eucken is convinced that only through the recognition of an independent spiritual life can the chaos of modern opinions be made to give way to a broad and satisfying philosophy of life.

In conclusion I should like to express my warmest gratitude to Professor Boyce Gibson (now of Melbourne University), the author of Rudolf Eucken s Philosophy of Life, who looked through the greater part of the MS., making a large number of invaluable suggestions and clearing up many obscure points. As it is, my task has been a hard one, but without his kind help it would have been much more difficult.

MEYRICK BOOTH.

Lbtchwobth,

Author's Preface To The English Edition

The Main Currents of Modern Thought has met with a most friendly reception in Germany and in France, and it would give me very great pleasure should it win friends for itself within the English-speaking world. This work aims in the first place at counteracting the spiritual and intellectual confusion of the present day. I have sought to grasp the specific character of the age through a study of its more central problems ; and with the object of liberating these problems from all that is accidental and momentary I have endeavoured to illuminate them from the standpoint of the historical development of humanity. At the same time, this historical treatment shows that spiritual evolution is a matter common to all civilised peoples ; they have all actively participated in this evolution, and all are to-day called to the performance of great common tasks, by which they are raised above and beyond every national and political difference. Nothing is more certain to counteract the lamentable and dangerous hostility of great nations to one another than a better understanding of the complete solidarity of the various nations with regard to those great questions which concern humanity as a whole.

KUDOLF EUCKEN.

Jena,

Preface To The Third Edition

The third edition differs even more from the second than did the second from the first. In the first edition the historical review formed the foundation of the work, while the discussion of the problems themselves was quite a secondary matter ; in the second edition the discussion became far more independent, and in the third it obtained the full primacy. The book is above all an expression of a specific philosophical conviction as a whole, and claims to be considered in this light. This claim has had the effect of essentially altering the mode in which the material had to be presented ; in particular, it demanded a more precise arrangement and division of the subject matter, extending even to the separate sections.

While carrying out these alterations, I believed myself able, at the same time, to retain the fundamental ideas of the earlier editions ; the correlation of historical fact with spiritual reality on the one hand, and treatment under separate headings on the other. Both as a whole and in certain special discussions (which cannot now be anticipated) the book contends that the content of history is more than an object of scholarly research, and that, subject to definite assumptions, it may powerfully contribute to the uplifting of our own work. To start from special problems secures the advantage of tangible points of attack, from which it is possible to progress rapidly to some sort of conclusion. This method is certainly open to an objection ; the general conviction underlying the whole does not as such receive adequate attention, nor is it set forth in continuous and connected argument. This defect is freely admitted. It is, however, so closely connected with the mode of treatment here adopted that it cannot be remedied. In this respect my earlier books will be found to a certain extent supplementary. The chief lack con-

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18 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION sists in the failure to provide an adequate epistemological groundwork, and my next book will be devoted to a thorough discussion of the theory of knowledge.

The different editions are held together, however, even more by a thoroughgoing fundamental conviction than by the method of treatment ; by the conviction, namely, that the ground upon which our whole civilised life and scientific work stands is insecure ; that this life not only contains an immense variety of individual problems, but that as a whole it needs a drastic revision and a thorough renewal. It is my belief that philosophy must participate in this endeavour ; nay, that philosophy above all is here summoned to energetic co-operation. This has brought me into opposition to the main tendency of contemporary German philosophy, which believes itself able peacefully to continue its scientific work undisturbed by these questions and doubts. We thankfully and gladly recognise the valuable character of this work, more especially in the detailed development of the separate departments of knowledge ; it has accomplished and is accomplishing much. But at the same time the right and the necessity of the more general problem must be insisted upon with all possible emphasis. In working in this direction we shall not allow ourselves to be in any way affected by the attitude which others may adopt towards this problem ; we shall rely solely upon the inner necessity of the matter. / Kecently, however, there have been a multitude of signs / bearing witness to the fact that increasingly wide circles are ) becoming interested in the problems which we have taken up. f The inner complications of our civilisation, nay, of our whole \ spiritual situation, are growing more and more obvious ; we are becoming more and more conscious of serious lapses from truth, of a substitution of phrases for realities and stones for bread. \ Nothing less than the happiness and meaning of our own \ existence is at stake. Thus the desire for classification and I consolidation makes itself felt with ever-increasing urgency and I philosophy is being more and more imperatively called to lend its \ aid in the solution of these problems of life. New life-move- 1 ments are ascending and men's minds are being swayed by new interests which bid them pursue new aims.

Preface To The Third Edition 19

These inner changes have procured for my books an increasing number of friends and given me the consciousness of a close spiritual contact with the age, such as I was not previously able to enjoy. It is with peculiar pleasure that I welcome the interest of the young and growing generation, an interest which has grown with unexpected and increasing speed. I hope that this interest may also be extended to this book, and, in particular, I hope that it may assist in a further development of the problems which have here been treated in mere outline, and frequently, there is no doubt, very incompletely. For what we all see more or less clearly before us is ultimately nothing less than the idea of a new man and a new culture. A linking up of forces, an overcoming of all that is merely individual, the inception of a comprehensive movement, can alone enable us to make any progress in dealing with so gigantic a problem.

RUDOLF EUCKEN.

Jena,

February, 1904.