The Logic of Christian Evidences

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Preface

As the connection clearly shows, the oft-quoted saying of Coleridge ,i that he was weary of the word " Evidences of Christianity," is a rhetorical exclamation meaning no more than that the prevalent mode of presenting those evidences in his time was distasteful to him. Coleridge relied more exclusively than some upon the so-called internal evidences of Christianity ; but these are " evidences," nevertheless, and must be comprehended in order to be felt.

In our own day also, the weight of high authority is given to the opinion that there is no more call for discussion of the evidences of Christianity, since believers are already satisfied with the grounds of their faith, and unbelievers will not give attention to anything which may be written upon the subject.

^ Aids to Reflection. Conclading chapter.

(iii)

IV PREFACE

It need not be said that the present writer takes a different view of the case. Even though some were so confirmed in their beliefs that all argument with them is foreclosed^ we should not forget the young men and women whose, opinions have not yet become fixed, and whose minds are destined to come more and more under the subtile and powerful influence of the prevailing habits of scientific thought. For the sake of these it is important to throw upon the foundations of our religious hope just the light which the present day affords. A substantial service will be rendered if the subject shall be so treated as not to exaggerate the- antagonism between modern science and Christianity.

It is no disparagement of the older works upon the evidences of Christianity to say that they do not exactly meet the difficulties which now prosent themselves to inquiring minds. Nor is it any objection to the system that a re-statcment of its evidences is so frequently required. Prom the nature of the case each generation approaches the subject from a slightly different point of view, and every man looks at Christianity through the medium of his own personal experience and intel-

PREFACE. V

lectual acquisitions. It is, in fact, confirmatory of the claims of the Christian religion that while its substance remains unchangeable it may in form adjust itself to different degrees of culture and diverse stages of civilization. This striking and characteristic prerogative it enjoys because it is a spiritual system, independent, in a remarkable manner, of transitory phases of intellectual and social development.

The aim of the present brief treatise is to bring into one view both the external and the internal evidences of Christianity as they now stand, and as they appear when compared with the evidences upon which the beliefs of science are based. While the discussion assumes considerable familiarity on the part of the reader with the general results of modern investigation, and is primarily addressed to those who have had a liberal education, it is hoped that none of it is beyond the reach of plain men and women of thoughtful turn who make up for their lack of school privileges by increased assiduity in their private reading and fltudy. So far as (for the sake of brevity) technical language is used in the present work, such readers can easily gather the sense fi*om the context.

VI PREFACE.

It is needless to add that the scope of the present work does not permit discussion of the doctrine of inspiration, or of the special principles of scriptural interpretation. The question of the authenticity of the Christian narrative is prior to that of the inspiration of the Bible ; and the doctrine of the infallibility of scripture can be intelligently considered only after inspiration has been satisfactorily defined and the credibility of the main facts of Christianity established.

To the friends who have so generously aided, and so patiently counselled in the production of this work, the thanks of the author are most heartily rendered.

G. FREDEEICK WRIGHT.

PART I. PEIKCIPLES OF INDUCnOH CHAPTER I

PBBLIHINART CONSIDERATIONS.

Definition of Nature, I ; Snpematura], 2 ; Miracle, 3 ; Christian* ity, 4 ; Problem Stated, 5 ; Kind of Proof to be expected, 6 ; Sufficiency of this kind of Proof, 1, 8 ; Division of the Subject, (pp. 1-7).

Chapter II. The Distinouishing Features Of Deductite And

INDUCTIYB LOOIO.

The Deductive Syllogism, 1 ; Hume's Fallacy illustrated by, 2 ; Deduction only Analysis, 3 ; Inductive Conclusion Contains more than the Premises, 4, 5 ; Hypothetical Elements in Mixed Science, 6-8 ; Induction keeps Hypothesis close to Facts, 9 ; Reasonable Belief reaches farther than Absolute Knowledge, 10-12. (pp. 7-18.)

CHAPTER m.

ILLUSTRATIONS DRAWN FROM TARIOUS INDUCTIYB SCIENCES.

Scientific Belief reached by three steps : Observation, Explanation, and Verification, 1 . Chemistry and Physics, 2-7; Narrow Range of ** Chemical Method/' 2, 3 ; Chemists must draw Inferences,

1 The figures in Analysis refer to paragraplis.

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Vm CONTENTS.

4 ; Atomic Theory of Matter, 5 ; the Spectroscope, iistrofiwny, 8-13 ; Meaning of " Prediction," 8 ; " Crucial teats," 9; Uncertainties and Perplexities of Astronomy not Sufficient to prevent Belief of General System, 10-13. Geciogyy 14-19; Infers what has been, 14; Glacial Hypothesis, 15-17; Jnference without Experiment or Prediction, 1 8, 1 9. Botany, 20-24; Its Conclusions Inferential, 20 ; Hypothesis that Cross-fertilization is beneficial, 21, 22 ; Gray's Explanation of Similarity between Flora of Japan and the Atlantic United States, 23, 24. The Historical Sciences, 25-36 ; Science of Language, 25 ; Interpretation of Cuneiform Inscriptions, 26-^0 ; All Interpretation of Language a Process of Induction, 31, 32 ; Comparative Philology, 33-36. Textual Criticism, 37-40 ; Determination of Original Text of the New Testament a Process of Inductive Science, 37 ; Number of Variations not Surprising, 38 ; Principles by which Variations are explained and Errors eliminated, 39 ; General Result, 40. (pp. 20-61.

CHAPTER IV. BTniMABT OF CONCLUSIONS

Scantiness of Absolute Knowledge, 1, 2 ; General use of Inferential Knowledge, 3 ; Distinct Methods of Verification in Difierent Sciences, 4 ; Advantages and Disadvantages of Experts, 5, 6 ; Unimportance of Minor Difficulties, 7 ; Relative Value of 'Actual Knowledge increased by its Limitations, 8. (pp. 62-70).

. PART IT.

THEISM AND CHRISTIANITY.

CHAPTER L

FEB80NALITT, WISDOM, AND BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITT.

Question Stated, 1-3. Personality of the First Cause, 4-29 ; Varieties of Theism, 4 ; Personality of the First Cause not an

CONTENTS. ix

UDScientific'hypothesis, 5, 6 ; Adaptations to Purpose in Nature, 7, 8 ; How to be accoanted for, 9-14 ; Cumbrousness of Atheism, 12-14. Evolution needs Proof, and is not Atlieistic, 15-23 ; Evolution presupposesQualities, 15, 16 ; The longer the Evolution the larger the Design, 16 ; Views of Professor Asa Gray, 17, 18, 22 ; Inscrutability of the Divine Plan, 21, 22 ; Incidental Incompatibility of Designs, 23. " Continuity of Nature " not Inconsistent with Design, or Free-will^ 24-29 ; "Continuity of Nature ** not the same as the " Uniformity of Nature," 24 ; Mind and Matter may interpenetrate each other, 25 ; Case of Unstable Equilibrium, 26 ; Mathematical Paradox of " Singular Solutions," 27 ; The addition of Design involves no break in the Continuity of Nature, 28, 29. Omnipotencei Misconceptions Removed, 30-35 ; Excludes Dualism, 30; Mill's Difficulties, 31 ; Defined, 32-34 ; F. W. Newman on, 35. Wisdom and Benevolence of the Creator, 36-54 ; Proof from Nature of Divine Benevolence, 36 ; Supplemental Evidence from Revelation, 37 sq. ; Complexity of the Divine Ends, 38, 39 ; Final Cause a Comprehensive Term, 40 ; " The Law of Parsimony," 41-43 ; The Existence of Evil, 44 ; Miracles for Extraordinary Ends not Incongruous, 45-49 ; Miracles and Special Providence, 51 ; God's Relation to Nature, 52 ; The Real Proof of Design, 53 ; Anthropomorphism necessary, 54. (pp. 72-122).

CHAPTER II.

Is there occasion for Miraculous Intervention ? 1 ; Immortality more than a Possibility, 2 ; Antithesis of Mind and Matter, 3-5 ; Noble Powers of the Soul, 6-8 ; Dignity of Conscience, 9 ; Inadequateness of the Soul's Mortal Career, 10 ; Power and Universality of the Hope of Immortality, 11-13 ; The Divine Veracity pledged, 14 ; Christianity a further Witness for Man's Dignity, 15; Objection concerning Animals answered by Man's relative worth, 16-18 ; Human need of Revelation, 19 ; The Reach of the Argument, 20 ; An Allegorical Illustration, 21 , 22 ; Dignity of Human Nature both supports and supported by Evidences of Christianity, 23. (pp. 123-144.

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IIL

THE CHARACTEB AND POWER OF CHBIBTIAKXTT.

Christianity more than a System of Ethics, 1 ; Its liesults should match its Claims, 2 ; Power over Individuals, 3-6 ; over Society, 7, 8 ; Christian Religion contrasted with Paganism, 9-12; Miracles not Unreasonable for such Ends, 13; Multiplied Miracles not called for, 14-17; Probable Evidence sufficient, 18 ; Christianity a Supplement to the Revelation of Nature, 19 ; Antecedent Probability of a Special Revelation, 20. (pp. 145-163).

CHAPTER IV.

THE IMFBRATIYE CHARACTER OF PROBABLE EYIDENCE UPON

SUCH A SUBJECT.

Practical Importance of Truth or Falsehood of Christianity, 1,2; No Neutral Position, 3 ; Only a better proved System can displace Christianity, 4, 5 ; Preponderance of Evidence makes Action Obligatory, 6-8 ; Burden of Proof rests with great weight on those who disbelieve, 9, 10. (pp. 164-176.)

Part III. Bfecific Evidences

CHAPTER L

INTBODUCTOBT.

Christianity demands some Explanation,l ; It is either True or a Eraud or a Delusion, 2 ; Rival Hypotheses outlined, 3-7. (pp. 179-183.)

CHAPTER n.

THE EARLY GENERAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE NEW

TESTAMENT.

Isolated Passages not here to be considered, 1 ; Testimony of Origen, 2 ; TertuUian, 3 ; Clement of Alexandria, 4 ; Irenaeus,

CONTENTS. XI

5 ; Justin Martyr, 6 ; High Value of the Early Apologetics, 7 ; Early Translations and Lists, 8 ; Wide Acceptance of New Testament before a.d. 200, 9. (pp. 184-195).

CHAPTER ni.

CHABACTBB OV THE HISTORICAL DOCUMEKTS IN QUESTION.

ArUessness of the New Testament, 1,2; Composite Matter and Style, 2; The External Setting, 2; Incidental Allusiona to Affairs in Judea, 3, 4 ; Relation of the Narrative to Events of the Period, 3 ; Complicated Politics of Palestine, 4 ; Inciden' tal Allusions to the Greek and Roman World, 5-7 ; Minute Accuracy demanded, 5 ; Such Correctness found, 6 ; Forgery at a later date, or Mythical Growth impossible, 7. The Internal and Undesigned Harmony of the Gospels, 8-18 ; Not an Artificial Harmony, 8, 9 ; Illustration from Healing of the Leper, 10, 11 ; Undesigned Coincidences and Artless Variations, 1 2, 13 ; Individuality of the First Three Gospels, 14 ; Impossible Theories of their Origin, 15 ; Illustration from Use of ** Son of Man," 16-18. The Genuineness of the Fourth Gospel, 19-25 ; External Testimony, 19; Internal Evidence, 20; Coincidences and Variations inconceivable in a Foigery, 21-23 ; Style and Matter congruous with John's Character and Circumstances, 24, 25 ; Summary of Conclusions, 26-28. (pp. 196-228.)

CHAPTER IV.

THE CHBISTIANS OV THE FIRST AND SECOND CBNTURIES.

General Characteristics of the Period, 1 ; Data for the Argument, 2 ; Agreement of widely separated and Independent Witnesses, 3, 4 ; Absence of Rival Gospels, 5-7 ; Early Undisputed Belief in Authenticity, 8, 9. Heathen Testimony, 10-14 ; Tacitus, 11 ; Suetsnius, 12; Pliny, 13 ; Silence of others no difficulty, 14. Continuity of the Christian Testimony, 15-18; Space one Witness may Bridge, 17 ; Polycarp, 18 ; The Testimony Official, 19; Independent Evidence from Acts and the Epistles, 20 ; The Testimony of Institutions, 23 ; Mythical Theory impossible, 24 ; Origin of the Christian Records before the Second Century not seriously to be doubted, 25. (pp. 22^251 ).

XU CONTENTS.

Chapter V. Were Jesus And His Immediate Disciples Eithbb Impostors

OR DELUDED ENTHUSIASTS ?

Extent of the Miraculous Element in tJi£ New Testamentf 1-4 ; Publicity of Christ's Deeds, 2 ; Variety and Character of His Miracles, 3; Produced Belief against Great Obstacles, 4. Miracles Demanded as Perpetual Vouchers to a Supernatural jRewelation, 5, 6 ; Such Claims at the Time secured Scrutiny, 5 ; Miracles Peculiar to Christianity, 6. The Theory of Imposture Incredible^ 7, 8. The Breadth of the Inquiry , 9-14 ; " Chemical Method" too Narrow, 9; Single Miracles open to Cavil, 10; All Congruous with Divinity of Christ, 11, 12 ; The Resurrection the Central Miracle, 13 ; The Moral Influence of Christ clinches the Argument, 14. The Originality of Jesus, 1 5-25 ; The Character of Jesus not a Natural Evolution, 1 6,1 7 ; Dilemma of Unbelief, 18 ; Christ not the Product of his Times, 19, 20 ; The Messianic Expectation, 21 ; Its Realization, 22, 23 ; Exaltation of Christ's Character, 24 ; Could not be the Product of Delusion, 25. Moral Restraint under which the Apostles moved, 26-32 ; Sobriety and Self-restraint of the Early Believers, 26 ; Symmetry of Christ's Character, 26, 27 ; His Childhood, 28 ; His Ministry, 29 ; Dispassionate Character of the Narrative, 30 ; Power of the Narrative, 31 ; Artlessness, 32. Christianity more Extrojordinary if not True than if True, 33-35 ; False Theories eliminated, 33, 34 ; Truth of the Records established, 35. (pp. 252-285.)

Chapter VI. General Summary

God a Person, 1 ; The Creator's Designs apprehensible, 2 ; Dig^ nity of Man, 3 ; Immortality, 4 ; Revelation antecedently probable, 5 ; Internal Argument for Christianity, 6, 7 ; Historical Argument necessary, 8 ; Appropriateness of the System, 9 ; Beneficent Influence of Christianity, 10, 11 ; The Crisis at which Christianity was Introduced, 12 ; Character of the Evi-

€ONTENTS. XIU

•

dence, 13 ; Compared with that in Astronomy, 14 ; in Gcologjy 1 5 ; in Natnral History, 1 6 ; Conclusiveness of Historical Evidence, . 1 7 ; Specific Evidences of Christianity, 18-23; Elimination of (a) the Mythical Theory, (6) of that of Self-delusion, (c) of Conscious Imposture, (c?) of Forgery, 19, 20 ; The Supposition of the Truth of Christianity leaves the fewest Difficulties unexplained, 21 ; Unity of Christian History, 22, 23 ; The Argument Cumulative, 24 ; The Duty of Conservatism, 25 ; The Evidence as Satisfactory as the Nature of the Case will allow, 26 ; Force of such Evidence in ordinary matters, 27 ; Probable Permanence of Christianity, 28. (pp. 286-306.)

I

Part I. Some Principles Of Induction Stated And Illustrated

(XV)

f

Chapter I. Preliminary Considerations

1. Nature is a term used both in an active and in a passive sense. In its passive sense it stands for the causally connected sequences which appear in time and space. In the active sense it represents the forces which in their adjustments and conditions produce the phenomena of matter and finite mind. In using the word in its most general passive sense care is necessary to avoid confounding it with universe ; for then there would seem to be no room left for the term " supernatural." On the other hand, if, like Dr. Bushnell, we reduce the conception of nature till it becomes merely a measure of events in the chain of physical causation, the word " supernatural " will be so compreliensive as to become unmanageable. A steam-engine, for example, is an effect above the sphere of physical causes, since an ideal element appears in its construction. Manifestly,

however, it would be unfortunate to use the term

2 PEINCIPLES OP INDUCTION.

in such a limited sense that a steam-engine would be classed among supernatural objects.^

2. The Supernatural, as used by theologians, is a generic word, which stands in general for phenomena supposed to originate outside the chain of natural forces. In theological science the supernatural is made to include the supposed facts of providence and grace^ as well as miracles.

3. A Miracle is an unusual event of such a character as manifestly to imply an interruption of the established order of nature by a special agency of the Creator. The unusualness of the miracle corresponds to the exceptional character of the divine purpose it is supposed to reveal. Miracles are not for private interpretation, but are understood to be of public significance, and, by their extraordinary character, to serve as credentials to a divine message.

4. Christianity is the religious system originating in the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. The motive power of the system is to be found in its peculiar doctrines concerning the endowments and condition of man, the character of God, and the person and offices of Jesus Christ. So far as

1 See Professor E. A. Park's discussion in review of Bushnell's " Nature and the Supernatural " in Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. xvi. pp. 426-437 ; and in Supplement to Article on Miracles in American edition of Smith's Diet, of the Bible. Also, the Duke of Argyll's "Reign of Law," pp. 6-11, and President Bascom'a "Philosophy of Religion/' chaps, v. and ix.

80ME DEFIMTIONS. 8

these doctrines are specifically Christian they are gathered from the direct teaching of Christ and his chosen disciples, as interpreted by the circumstances under which the words were first spoken or written ; together with such inferences as may fairly be drawn from the general facts of the life and ministry of Jesus and his apostles. The distinctive doctrines of Christianity pertain to supernatural facts, and in part purport to depend upon miracles for their authority. In discussing the present topic, the propriety of devoting a large amount of attention to the subject of miracles arises both from their evidential importance, if established, and from the fact that such events lie within the reach of scientific scrutiny, and admit of a certain kind of scientific verification.

6. The Problem before us in the present treatise is, however, something more than a mere consideration of the external evidence upon which belief in the New Testament miracles reposes. We shall endeavor concisely to estimate the relative weight of all the forms of evidence bearing upon the claims of a supernatural origin for Chris- *tianity, and of divine authority for its doctrines.

6. The Proof that the facts and doctrines of Christianity are supernatural is inductive^ and consists in the comparative success with which the hypothesis of supernaturalism explains their exalted character, together with the early exi&-

4 PBINCIPLES OF IN£UCnON.

tence and acceptance of the New Testament literature, while accounting for the history, progress, distinguishing features, and present power of Christian faith in the world, as exhibited both in the experience of individuals and in society. It properly belongs to the Christian apologist to show that those who reject the supernatural element in Christianity drop the only reasonable clew leading out of an intricate labyrinth of historical and social phenomena.

7. There is nothing singular in the method of proof here indicated. It is the method employed in all inductive sciences. Knowledge of external things is necessarily inferential. " To draw inferences is the^great business of life"; and an inference, whether in science or religion, is an exercise of faith, and can never be anything more. But an hypothesis is adequate only when it is seen to rest on a real analogy, and completely to accord with, while properly collocating, the phenomena under consideration. In the case in hand, two species of theory are in the field, oflFering to explain the distinctive facts of Christianity ; viz. naturalism and supernaturalism. They separate upon the question of adequacy. Naturalism, through the " law of parsimony," attempts to set aside supernaturalism as superfluous ; while supernaturalism aflBrms naturalism to be inadequate, in view of all the facts, and establishes itself upon

PEOBABILITY SUFFICIENT. 6

such residual phenomena as remain after nataral causes have been made to do their utmost in solving the problem.

8. It should be noted, also, that the - supernatural element in Christianity cannot be ignored solely on the plea that the evidence pointing to it is not so clear as we should think it might be. The scheme of the universe is extensive and complicated. It is difficult to tell, on general principles, what would constitute the best credentials to a supernatural revelation. In strengthening the argument for one generation there might be danger of putting succeeding generations to a disadvantage ; and by multiplying miracles the boundary between the natural and the supernatural might be obscured. It is an important principle, that, respecting subjects of great practical concern, it is proper to make a virtue of necessity, and commendable to act with vigor upon such a degree of hope as the balance of probabilities and the nature of the case allow.

Division of the Snbjeot.

In what follows upon the Logic of Christian Evidences, we propose :

I. First ; to indicate some of the characteristics which distinguish inductive logic from deductive ; illustrating the processes of the former by exam< pies from prominent inductive sciences.

II. Second ; to consider the questions, " Is there evidence in nature of the existence of a cause capable of producing miracles?" and, '' Can we discern signs of a sufficient reason for such a supersession of natural causes as the alleged miracles of Christianity imply ? "

III. Third ; briefly to present the facts regarding Christianity which demand explanation, and to compare the several possible schelnes for explaining and co-ordinating these facts.

Chapter II. Thb Distinguishing Features Of Deductive

AND INDUCTIVE LOGIC.

1. A Crda.n once remarked that all the Cretans were liars and knaves. A bystander interposed : " But you are a Cretan ! " Whereupon a neighbor added "Then, of course, he is a liar, and his testimony is worthless." To put this reasoning in the syllogistic form, it stands thus :

(a) All Cretans are liars : (major premise) (6) This man is a Cretan : (minor premise) (c) Therefore he is a liar, (conclusion) To this form all syllogisms in deductive logic can be reduced. But in such reasoning the question arises. How do we know a//, before we know each ? By what authority do we pronounce all the Cretans liars and knaves before the character of this particular Cretan has been observed ? It would seem easier to prove the mendacity of this particular man than to establish the general proposition from which his untruthfulness is inferred.

2. To vary the illustration, consider the syllogistic form of Hume's objection to the proof of miracles : (a) All purported miracles are incredible ; (6) . The resurrection of Christ is a purported miracle ; (c) Therefore the resurrection of Christ is incredible (or, as he would say, incapable of being proved by human testimony). But how are all miracles known to be incredible till the particular evidence for this one is fully considered ? Another form of stating Hume's argument illustrates the point still better : (a) All events which happened in the first century have a parallel in those occurring in the eighteenth century; (6) The resurrection of Christ has no parallel in the eighteenth century ; (c) Therefore it is incredible that it really occurred in the first century. It is plain here, that the thing needing proof is the major premise from which the conclusion is drawn. On what grounds is it decided that the historical developments of the eighteenth century will perfectly correspond to those of the first ? There is no known universal principle from which that conclusion follows. It would be more nearly correct to aflSrm that history will not exactly repeat itself in successive ages. Neither experience nor intui- • tion sustains the doctrine that absolute uniformity pervades the universe. Supposing an intelligent Creator, the wisdom of the present order of things would partly consist in a due recognition of the past, and in a proper adjustment of present forces to the new conditions produced by the past.

DEDUCTION UNPRODUCTIVE. 9

8. Since deduction is based on a previous generalization, the process may easily be made to conceal the real steps of the reasoning. In a properly constructed syllogism the conclusion comes out of the premises mechanically. The difficulty lies in showing how it legitimately got into the premises. The process of deduction is nothing more than an analysis of the premises. In the conclusion the implicit contents of the premises are explic" itly stated. But the conclusion must first have been involved, before it could be evolved. The progress, then, if any, in deduction, is towards clearness, rather than towards amplitude of knowledge. J. S. Mill ^ was not far from the truth in regarding the major premise as simply a register of previous inferences, and the syllogism itself as merely a skeleton on which to stretch our web of thought, the more readily to ascertain its contents and condition. Or, the major and minor premises may with propriety be compared to the upper and the nether millstones, between which the coarser products of our thought are ground to powder. But nothing can reach the bag which was not first put in at the hopper. Deductive logic belongs really among the pure sciences ; and De Morgan was not far amiss in contending that it should be classed with mathematics.^ Deduction can be

^ I>ogic, Book II. Chaps, ii. and iii.

2 See Jevon's " Principles of Science," (Vol. i. pp. 15-194); who, howcTer, makes mathematics a department of logic

10 PBINCIPLE3 OF INDUCTION.

performed on a calculating machine operated like a piano. The principles of deductive logic can be represented in geometrical figures and by algebraic symbols. However important to clearness the process of deduction may be, it is utterly unproductive of material additions to knowledge. 4. On the other hand, induction is productive. There is more in the inductive conclusion than appeared in the detached premises. Through the collocation of particular facts we reach general conclusions. Prom examination of present phenomena a certain condition of things in the past is inferred, and a certain other condition of things in the future is expected. E.g. from the limited knowledge in possession concerning the previous mortality of the race, it is inferred that all men are mortal, and that those still living will die. Putting together the facts known concerning the properties of ice, the transportation of boulders, and the striation of rocks by existing glaciers, and the facts concerning the distribution of drift and the general striation of rocks in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere, it is inferred that in America a continental glacier once extended near the coast, as far south as the latitude of New York City. Because the fish once ascended the unobstructed rapids in our rivers, we infer that shad and salmon will again return to the haunts of their ancestors, if, over the mill-dams, ladders are coQstruct^ii for them.

INDUCTION PRODUCTIVE. 11

5. In all these and similar cases, as the inference stands in its positive form, there is more in the conclusion than in the premises : something has been obtained before verification. The action of the mind upon separate phenomena has produced a belief which stands somewhere between certainty and ignorance. The draw-back to these inferences is, that they are not absolutely certain. They are open to objections, and are not secure from cavil. They are only probable conclusions. The gain in extension is accompanied by corresponding loss in certainty. The instincts of the fish may not be so permanent as was assumed. Omnipotence had power to create the world just as it is (scratches on the rocks and all), by a direct fiat. God might suddenly endow men with means of successfully resisting the dissolution of the body.

6. It is important to keep this infirmity of inductive conclusions in view, in order to remove the special reproach of inconclusiveness often cast upon Christian evidences. In the minds of some it is an objection to Christianity that its supernatural origin is not proved beyond possibility of doubt. There is much room for cavil concerning some of the prominent doctrines and facts of the Christian religion. But this arises from the cir^ cumstance that it belongs to the realm of actual things external to our personal coMsciousness.

12 PBINCIPLES OF INDUCTION.

Christianity has no generic infirmity which does not pertain to the whole family of inductive sciences. The question is whether it possesses any specific weakness which relegates its purported facts and doctrines to a region outside the ordinary principles of belief. All that can be properly required is, that the Christian system be proved beyond a reasonable doubt. What constitutes reasonable doubt depends upon a variety of considerations, to which attention must be given in the appropriate place.

7. In order to obtain a comprehensive view of the matters in hand, it is necessary to note more particularly the contrast between pure science and mixed science. In mathematics we are most familiar both with the name and the thing here indicated. There is demonstrative proof for every legitimate step in pure mathematics. In that department the mathematician does not believe his conclusions ; he knows them. But in applied mathematics things of diverse natures are necessarily considered together. In pure mathematics we proceed from definitions and axioms to rear a self-consistent structure of thought. It is, however, nothing more than a structure of thought. All that can be said of its reality is that its actualization is possible within the limits of space and time. Pure mathematics does not determine whether or not these ided

UNCERTAINTIES OF SCIENCE. 13

forms and combinations really exist. But into the calculations of applied mathematics elements of an entirely different character enter. Its problems are stated hypothetically. An " if " always intrudes upon the field. If the child grow four inches in height and two inches in girth every year, in how many years will he be a hundred feet high and fifty feet around ? Here, an element of observation and of inference regarding the course of nature has been introduced.