The literature of the Old Testament in its historical development

Front matter

Records of Civilization :Som-ces and Studies Edited by James T. Shotwell n-IE LITEMTURE OF THE

OLD TESTAMENT

BEWER

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

iNTRODUCnON xi

I. Early Poems i

Introduction

The Old Testament is not a single book but a little library of thirty-nine books as we ordinarily count them. Originally there were even more, for several which were at first distinct and separate are now combined in one ; and many more authors were responsible for their production than tradition allows. The Old Testament, as we now have it, is the result of a long literary process in which compilers and editors had a large share. It is in this final form that it has exerted its great influence on ancient and modern civilization alike. But each book, each component part indeed, had its special significance for its own time as well. Some of them were the direct cause of powerful religious and social movements ; others contain the soul-stirring addresses that gave new direction to the life of the nation. Like tributary streams which give refreshment and inspiration in their individual courses before their waters mingle in the river adding to its greatness and power, so each part of the Old Testament gave refreshment and inspiration to the people before it became united with the Bible as a whole, whose greatness and power it now augments. To trace the origin and development of the individual contributions, to see how they sprang out of the life and thought of the people, how they influenced the cultural development of Israel, and how they in turn were influenced and modified, until finally the one great Sacred Bible resulted, is a fascinating story. If we read the Old Testament in the order in which its various parts originated, it takes on a new significance, for the warmly pulsating life of the people and of its leaders is felt much better at its sources. The common folk with their songs and stories, the poets and the prophets, the historians, lawgivers, and sages, all stand before us as we follow in our imagination the various phases of the great development and try to think ourselves into the different experiences with sympathetic understanding until we feel the power that moved xii INTRODUCTION

them all and recreate in our own mind the times of long ago, when the pioneers of the Spirit blazed new paths for the moral and spiritual development of the race.

This we will attempt to do, and in order that we may really feel the throbbing Hfe of the movement we will take the results of the special, detailed, and laborious literary investigations regarding the composition of the individual books, the separation of their various elements, their date, and authorship for granted and follow the historical development of the Hterature of the Old Testament unencumbered by technicahties. It is true that there is no consensus of critical scholars about the date and composition of not a few documents, but the main lines of the development are sure enough to warrant our weaving the single literary results together in a story, which in itself will be a means of judging their plausibility and validity.

The chronological sequence of the books which literary criticism has established differs greatly from their order in our Bibles. And not only is this true of the books as a whole but of their component parts as well, for most of the books are of composite authorship. The majestic story of Creation, for example, which now stands at the beginning of the Old Testament, is quite late as a literary composition. The stories of the Garden of Eden and of the Temptation which follow immediately upon it are several centuries earlier; and the history of Saul and David in the Books of Samuel is, from a literary point of view, older than the books themselves, older indeed than the oldest stories in the Book of Genesis. The earliest of all literary productions are the poems which are now incorporated in the historical books.

The order of historical development which we shall follow is this :

I . The Pre-monarchic Period, before ca. looo B.C. (topically arranged,

not chronologically) :

(a) War and march songs: Song of Lamech (Gen. 4 ^^O- Song

of Miriam (Ex. 15 ^^). Eternal War with Amalek (Ex.

17 ^^). Incantations to the Ark (Num. 10 ^^^•). List of

Stations (Num. 21 "'•). Taunt Song on the Amorites

Joshua's Appeal to the Sun and the Moon (Josh. 10 ^^f).

Song of Deborah (Judg. 5).

INTRODUCTION xiii

(b) Proverbs, riddles, and fables: David's Proverb (i Sam.

24 ^^) . Samson's Riddles (Judg. 14 "•^^) and Taunt (Judg. 1 5 16) . Jotham's Fable (Judg. 9 ^-i^) .

(c) Prophetic blessings and oracles: The Blessing of Noah (Gen,

9 25-27) and of Jacob (Gen. 49). The Oracles of Balaam (Num. 23f.).

The Time of David, Solomon, and Jeroboam I, from ca. 1000-910

B.C.

(a) Poems: Paean over David's victories (i Sam. 18^ etc.). Sheba's War Cry (2 Sam. 20 i). David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i ^^^■), and over Abner (2 Sam. 3 "^f). Nathan's Parable (2 Sam. 12 ^^). Solomon's Dedication of the Temple (i Ki. S^^r.) xhe Books of Yashar and of the Wars of Yahweh. The Blessing of Moses (Deut. ^^).

{b) Narratives: The Story of the Founding and EstabHshment of the Kingdom by Saul, David, and Solomon (parts of I and 2 Sam and i Ki. if.). The Book of the Acts of Solomon (i Ki. 3-1 r in part). Beginnings of the Royal Annals and of the Temple Records.

(c) Laws: The Book of the Covenant (Ex. 20 ^^-23^^). The So-called Cultic Decalogue of Ex. 34.

The Ninth and Eighth Centuries : The Elijah Stories (i Ki. 17-19. 21). The Elisha Stories (2 Ki. 2-8 in part, 13 ""^O . The History of the Rise and Fall of the Dynasty of Omri (i Ki. 20.22, 2 Ki. 3.624-7 2037-15 9.10). The Yahwist {ca. 850 B.C.). The Elohist {ca. 750 B.C.). Amos (ca. 750). Hosea (from ca. 745-735). Isaiah (from 738-700 and perhaps later). Micah (from ca. 725 till perhaps the seventh century).

The Seventh Century: Combination of the Yahwist and the Elohist. Deuteronomy (published in 621 B.C.). Zephaniah {ca. 627-626). Jeremiah (from 626 on). Nahum {ca. 610). The First Edition of the Books of Kings (between 620 and 608).

xiv INTRODUCTION

5. The Sixth Century:

Jeremiah (continued till after 585) . Habakkuk (between 600 and 590). Ezekiel (593-571)- The Holiness Code (Lev. 17-26). Lamentations (586-550). Isaiah 63 ^-64 ^^ The Combination of the Yah wist and Elohist with the Deuteronomist in the Hexateuch. The Second Edition of the Books of Kings {ca. 550). The Deuteronomistic Editions of the Stories of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. The Song of Moses (Deut. 32). Isaiah 132^- 14 ^-^^ 21. Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 40-55, between 546 and 539). Haggai (520). Zechariah I-VIII (520-518 and after?). Isaiah 56 ^-58 ^^ 59 i-i^a 65 i-w 55 i-6.i5-i8a.24 (fj-Qj^ ^2o on) . The Priest Code {ca. 500).

6. The Fifth Century:

Isaiah 59^^^-636 65 ^^-^^ 66 7-i4.i8b-23_ Jeremiah 3 ^^-''\ Isaiah 34f. Obadiah. Isaiah i5f. Amos 9 ^''~^^ Zephaniah 2^""= ^-^^ Isaiah 11 ^°-^^ Malachi {ca. 460). The Memoirs of Nehemiah (after 432), and of Ezra. The Book of Ruth. The Aramaic Story in Ezra 4 M ^^. Joel {ca. 400).

7. The Fourth Century:

Joel (later elements) . Isaiah 19 ^-*^ 23 ^-". Proverbs (older portions). Job. Isaiah 24-27

8. The Third Century :

The Chronicler (300-250). Genesis 14. i Kings 13. Esther. Song of Songs. Proverbs i-9.3of. Jonah. Isaiah 19 ^^-^^ Ecclesiastes {ca. 200).

9. The Second Century :

Daniel (165-164). Zechariah 9-1 1. 13 ^~^ Isaiah 33. Zechariah 12.13 ^~^ 14- Completion of the Psalter.

THE LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Chapter I Early Poems

Long before any one in Israel thought of writing in literary form, people sang songs and told stories, dehghted in riddles and / wise sayings, and handed them down from generation to generation { in oral tradition. The few of these that have come down to us, em- ' bedded as quotations in our prose books, are all in poetry. They had been conceived in enthusiastic moods and had often been recited or sung on festive occasions, when the rhythmic form of some classes like the war songs and paeans of victory was accentuated by dancing and the accompanying clapping of the hands or by crude music. Certain men were especially interested in these folk songs. We read of ballad singers or reciters of poems in early Israel (Num. 21 ^'') and may be sure that in course of time they felt the need of committing their repertoire to writing. The names of two such early collections we know, the "Book of the Wars of Yahweh" and the ''Book of Yashar" or the "Upright." The) works themselves, the earliest books of Hebrew literature of which , we have any record, are no longer extant, but some of the poems, which are quoted from them in the (later) prose narratives,^ indicate ' that they were books of poetry.

Among the ancient poetic material that is still preserved in the books from Genesis to Samuel there are lyric songs, as well as didac-

^ The fragment of the list of stations in Num. 21 "'• is quoted from the "Book of the Wars of Yahweh" ; while Joshua's command to the sun and moon (Josh. 10 ^'O, David's lamentation over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i ^^~^''), and Solomon's dedicatory sentence (i Ki. 8 ^'O are from the "Book of Yashar."

I tic, prophetic, and cultic poems. Unfortunately, it is impossible to date them exactly. Though some are very old, not a single song has come down from a time earlier than Moses, and whether any has from his own time is doubtful. One of the oldest, in spirit if not in age or form, is the song of the terrible Lamech with its unquenchable thirst for revenge, its cruel lack of pity, and brutal boastfulness (Gen. 4^^^). It comes from a primitive civilization in which even the law of blood revenge exerted no restraint. Proudly the reckless warrior utters his boast to his wives,

Adah and Zillah, hear this voice of mine,

wives of Lamech, hearken to this speech of mine :

I slay a man for wounds of mine, and a young man for bruises of mine.

If Cain takes vengeance sevenfold, Lamech will truly seven and seventy fold !

The rhythm is perfect and the rhyme, which is rare in Hebrew poetry, enhances the wild beauty of the song. Who can tell how old it is? The form is polished, the contents are savage. But poetic forms are ancient, and primitive savagery among desert tribes may have haunted the Israelites long after they had settled in Palestine. The brutal boast of endless blood feud has many a parallel in Arab songs, where it is also addressed to the women. From Moses' time, it may be, comes the original pasan of Miriam after the great deliverance at the Sea of Reeds (Ex. 15 ^0- It was in just such manner that the ancient Arabs also celebrated their victories. With music and dancing the women, led by Miriam, repeated ever again the exciting refrain,

Sitig to Yahweh,

for highly exalted is He, The horse and its rider

He has hurled into the sea.

It consisted only of these lines, just as the paean of the women on David's victory over the Philistines. A much later poet worked it out in more detail, beginning with this same refrain but unfolding its theme at length, and then attributing the whole not to Miriam but to Moses (Ex. 15^*^), the greater personality, as often happens in literary history.

There are some other interesting bits of poetry connected with this period. The brief distich which tells of Yahweh's eternal warfare against Amalek,

A hand on the banner of Yahweh !

Yahweh has war with Amalek forever (Ex. 17 **),

is our oldest literary witness to the immemorial enmity between Israel and Amalek. But whether it actually comes from this early time, it is impossible to tell.

The ancient cultic formulae with which the Ark was addressed, when it was taken into battle and when it returned (Num. 10 '^^•), are most probably from the time of the Exodus or of the Conquest. They give us the primitive conception of the Ark. In ancient times it was taken into battle, especially when the situation was critical, for in it Yahweh manifested His presence in visible forni to His people. When it set out at the head of the army these words were spoken,

Arise, Yahweh, j

that Thine enemies be scattered, j

and they that hate Thee flee before Thee !

1 when it came back from victory.

Rest, O Yahweh, Thou myriads of regiments of Israel !

For Yahweh was the god of battle, worth myriads of regiments of Israel. He brought victory and then returned to rest in His tent. The narrator understood these verses as referring to the beginning and the end of the day's march in the wilderness. When the Ark started, Israel broke camp ; when it stopped, Israel did so too. Such cultic formulae are frequently reinterpreted by later generations. , A list of names of places through which Israel had passed on its march to Canaan was handed down in poetry. It has its parallels in Arabic poetry where the recitation of lists is often enlivened by a reminiscence of one kind or another. We have only a little fragment of the list. It is quoted from the Book of the Wars of Yahweh, in which the Exodus from Egypt and the Conquest of Canaan appear to have been celebrated in poetry and song. And the particular point the narrator wished to prove by the quotation was that the Arnon was the border of Moab at that time.

Waheb in Suphah ( ?) and the valleys,

Arnon and the cliff of the valleys, That slopes down to the dwelling of Ar,

And leans on the border of Moab. (Num. 21 ^**)

Perhaps the little song of the well was also taken from this source, although this is not definitely stated.

Spring up, 0 well ; sing in response to it,

Well that the princes digged, The rulers of the people delved

With their sceptres and staves !

From the desert a gift ! (Num. 21 "'•)

It celebrates the festal opening of a well in the desert. And just as to-day Arabs on the borders of Moab, in the region where Israel's song is located, assert that the particular well has been dug by their respective chief and sing songs to the well,^ so the Israelites claimed that their princes had delved it with their own staffs, although in reality their part was probably nothing but symbolical action. The narrator who inserted this song located its first recital at Beer in Moab, north of the Arnon ; that is exactly the neighborhood where Musil found this custom still practised by the Arabs. The song belongs therefore to this locaHty, and Beer may be Beer Elim, that is, the well of the terebinths which is mentioned in Isa. 15 ^.

The taunt song on the Amorites (Num. 21 2^-^°) belonged to the repertoire of the ballad singers. It is inserted in the narrative to illustrate the assertion that Moab had been conquered by Sihon, king of the Amorites. If this is correct, we may see in the song a satire on the Amorites. The Israelites mockingly invite the Amorites to come and rebuild Heshbon, the stronghold of their king Sihon, that mighty victor, who had subdued all Moab. Ha ! they

1 Compare the song of the Arabs to-day,

"Spring up, O well.

Flow copiously.

Drink and disdain not, With a staff have we dug it."

were strong enough to conquer Moab in the past, but now they themselves have been terribly defeated by Israel ! ^

Come to Heshbon, let it be built,

let the city of Sihon be restored !

For a fire went forth from Heshbon,

a flame from the city of Sihon, It devoured the cities of Moab,

consumed the heights of the Arnon.

Woe to thee, Moab !

thou art undone, O people of Kemosh : He gave his sons as fugitives,

and his daughters into captivity,

[to Sihon, king of the Amorites.l Their offspring ( ?) has perished

from Heshbon to Dibon, And their women (?)...

The Book of the Upright contained also Joshua's famous prayer \/^ during the battle of Gibeon, in which he begged that the day might 1 be long enough for a complete rout of the enemies, 1

O Sun, stand thou still over Gibeon, 1

and Moon, over the vale of Aijalon !

And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, till the people were avenged on their foes.

And similarly the answer.

And the sun s till the peop

This was expressed poetically by the author who lived some time j after the conquest had been completed. But the narrator, who / quoted it, interpreted it prosaically : a stupendous miracle was the/ result !

And the sun stayed in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day. And there was no day like that before it or after it, that Yahweh hearkened to the voice of a man. Qosh. 10 """)

The finest and most elaborate of all early war songs, and generally regarded as the most ancient too, is Deborah's famous ode

* This interpretation is not quite certain. Some believe that the song celebrated Israel's victory over Moab, and date it from the time of Omri {ca. 900 B.C.). But the reference to the ballad singers suggests that it is older. And if our interpretation is correct, this taunt may come from the tjme of the conquest or shortly thereafter and may even be earlier than the Song of Deborah, which also ends in a taunt.

6 THE LITER.\TURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

which celebrates Israel's victory over Sisera (Judg. 5). Composed either by the great prophetess herself or by some contemporary, the song is as invaluable for the history of the time as it is remarkable for its literary quality and poetic power. It begins with an imposing description of Yahweh's march from Sinai to battle for His people, and a sketch of the conditions of the time. The enthusiastic rally of the tribes who lived in or near the great plain of Esdraelon is then contrasted with the attitude of the more distant ones who kept aloof. A vivid picture of the mighty battle follows, with the flight of Sisera and his inglorious death at the hand of Jael, while a masterly portrayal of the anxious mother of Sisera and her ladiesin-waiting who are anticipating their share in Sisera's spoil, which will never come, concludes the song, to which a reader has added the "pious" wish, "So let all Thine enemies perish, 0 Yahweh!"

Because the leaders took the lead in Israel, because the people freely volunteered, bless ye Yahweh ! ,

Hear, O ye kings ; ye princes give ear !

I will sing to Yahweh,

I will sing praise to Yahweh, the God of Israel.

Yahweh, when Thou wentest forth from Seir,

when Thou marchedst from Edom's field, The earth trembled, the heavens also swayed,

yea, the clouds poured water, the mountains quaked at the presence of Yahweh, God of Israel.

In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath,

caravans ceased,

and wayfaring men took roundabout ways.

The rural population ( ?) had ceased,

in Israel they had ceased.

Until thou didst arise, Deborah,

didst arise a mother in Israel.

They chose new gods ( ?) ,

then was war in the gates ( ?) } A shield or spear was not seen

among forty thousand in Israel.

My heart belongs to the rulers of Israel,

to those that freely volunteered among the people !

' The original text of these two lines is irrecoverable.

Bless ye Yahweh,

ye that ride on tawny asses, Ye that sit on rich carpets ( ?)

and ye that walk by the way, sing ! ( ?) Hark the huzzahing ( ?) at the watering places !

there they rehearse the victories of Yahweh, The victories of his country folk in Israel,

(how) at that time the people of Yahweh went down to the gates.

Rouse thee, rouse thee, Deborah ;

rouse thee, rouse thee, utter a song :

arise, Barak, and lead forth thy captors, thou son of Abinoam. Then marched down for him the nobles,

and the people of Yahweh marched down for him as heroes. From Ephraim they came down to the valleys (?),

after them Benjamin with his hosts ; From Machir came down commanders,

and from Zebulun they that wield the marshal's staff. And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah ;

as was Issachar, so was Barak,

into the vaUey they rushed forth at his heels.

Among the tribal divisions of Reuben

were great searchings of heart.

Why didst thou sit still among the sheepfolds,

to hear the flute calls of the flocks?

Gilead remained beyond the Jordan :

and Dan sought the protection of ( ?) ships !

Asher sat still on the shore of the sea,

and abode by his landings.

Zebulun is a people that jeoparded their hves to the death,

NaphtaU also, upon the heights of the field.

The kings came and they fought ;

then fought the kings of Canaan, In Tannach by the waters of Megiddo :

they took no gain of money.

From heaven fought the stars,

from their courses they fought against Sisera. The river Kishon swept them away,

that onrushing river, the river Kishon.

O my soul, march on with strength (?).

Then were battered the hoofs of the horses by the furious galloping of their chargers.

Curse ye Meroz, said the angel of Yahweh, curse bitterly its inhabitants,

Because they came not to the help of Yahweh, to Yahweh's help among the heroes.

Blessed above women be Jael,

blessed above women in the tent.

Water he asked, milk she gave ;

she brought him curd in a lordly bowl.

She put forth her hand to the tent pin,

and her right hand to the workman's hammer ; And with the hammer she battered Sisera, she crushed his head ;

yea, she shattered and struck through his temple. At her feet he sank down, he fell, he lay still,

where he sank down, there he lay slain.

Out of the window leaned Sisera's mother

and looked through the lattice, ^

"Why is his chariot so long in coming?

why tarry the hoof -beats of his horses?"

The wisest of his princesses answered her,

yea, 'tis she that made reply to her, " Surely they are finding, dividing the spoil,

a damsel or two for each man ; Booty of dyed garments for Sisera,

booty of dyed garments, embroidered,

a dyed garment, two pieces of embroidered stuff for the neck of .... "

* * *

So let all Thine enemies perish, O Yahweh, but let them that love Thee be as the sun when he rises in his might. (Judg. s)

This triumphal ode belongs in the judgment of critics to the finest odes in the literature of the world and is not excelled in poetic power by any of the later war poems of Israel. Its significance for our knowledge of the history of Israel greatly enhances its value. In the threatening crisis of a powerful offensive of Canaanite city kings against the Israelite invaders who had consolidated their gains in the mountains south and north of the Great Plain, the tribes Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali together with Ephraim, Benjamin, and Machir were rallied by Deborah to the standard of Yahweh. Barak of Is.sachar assumed chief command. The battle itself with its victorious issue for Israel is clearly portrayed, but the further results we must infer. That it helped to weld Israel's tribes together is certain. It is noteworthy that the unifying element is the religion of Yahweh. The conviction that Reuben, Gilead, Dan, and Asher ought also to have followed the summons, and the bitter reproach for their failure to do so, show that in a crisis the feeling that they all belong together pervaded the people. It is all the more significant that Judah, Simeon, and Levi are not mentioned at all, the author did not consider them as part of Israel. For our knowledge of the conditions of Israel immediately preceding the attack, the power of the Canaanites, their control of the plains with their passes and caravan routes, their military forces with chariotry and cavalry, as well as for the strength of the religion of Yahweh, who comes from His sacred seat far in the south to the rescue of His people, Deborah's song is of singular importance.

Israel delighted also in proverbs, riddles, and wise sayings. Perhaps the oldest proverb that has come down to us in poetic form was once quoted by David.

From the wicked comes forth wickedness, but my hand shall not be upon thee, (i Sam. 24 *')

Even in his day it was a "proverb of the ancients." Many others must have circulated among the people, but they were not written down or collected at so early a date, and thus they are lost to us.

Riddles too were a favorite pastime of Israel in all ages. We still have the riddle which Samson propounded at his wedding,

From the eater came forth the meat,

and from the strong one came forth sweet,

of which the guests gave their solution in the form of another,

What is sweeter than honey,

and what is stronger than a lion? (Judg. 14 "-i*)

To this Samson sarcastically replied with a popular rhyme,

Had ye not ploughed with the heifer of mine, ye had not found out this riddle of mine.

Both riddles are older than the stories of which they now form a part, for they originally meant something altogether different, since the real answer to the second was "love." The narrator used it for his story with an entirely new meaning. What the first one originally meant is uncertain; perhaps it was the lion in the sky that brings the harvest.

Samson's taunt,

With the jaw of an ass

I smashed them in mass, With the jaw of an ass

I slew a thousand men (Judg. 15 **),

tjvas taken literally by the narrator, while originally the idiomatic phrase "with a jawbone of an ass" expressed that Samson's as-

, tounding victory had been won with a most miserable, despicable

/weapon (cf^ Judg. 5 ^).

There were also longer didactic poems. The most remarkable of them all is Jotham's fable of the trees' choice of a king, which teaches that the good and useful people have too much to do to accept the office of king ; only worthless and dangerous people are willing to become monarchs. Loyalty to them in the hope of gaining protection by them is sheer mockery, and disloyalty involves ruin.

Hearken to me, lords of Shechem, that God may hearken to you !

The trees went forth on a time

to anoint them a king, And they said to the olive, "Reign over us!"

But the olive said unto them, " Should I leave my fatness

which gods and men prize in me, And go to sway over the trees?"

Then the trees said unto the fig-tree,

"Come thou, and reign over us !"

But the fig-tree said unto them,

"Should I leave my sweetness And my good fruit

and go to sway over the trees ? "

Then the trees said unto the grape vine,

"Come thou, and reign over us !"

But the grape vine said unto them,

"Should I leave my wine That cheers gods and men,

and go to sway over the trees?"

EARLY POEMS ii

Then said all the trees unto the thorn,

"Come thou, and reign over us!"

And the thorn said unto the trees,

"If in truth ye anoint Me as king over you,

then come, take refuge in my shade, But if not, fire shall proceed from the thorn,

and devour the cedars of Lebanon." (Judg. 9)

This bitter judgment of kingship is applied by the narrator to Abimelech, whom the people of Shechem had made king. Whether the author himself composed the fable or whether it was taken from the people's fund of stories either by Jotham or by the author is a matter of debate. The latter seems a Httle more probable on the whole. The fable appears to voice the feelings of many free Israelites in the period shortly before the introduction of the monarchy. Only dire need made them ready for this new form of government. The fable is of great historical importance, even if it came from a much later time than we have assumed.

Another class of early poems is in the form of prediction : this is merely a literary form ; for in reality they did not foretell the 1 future, but explained the present as due to the magically potent | word of the ancestor's blessing. These blessings were composed in \ poetry, because the inspiration of the vision of the future put the ancestors into an exalted mood in which speech assumes rhythmic form. The historian may use these poems as documents of the time which they predict, but not of that of the ancestors themselves, for they were not composed by them, but by the later poets who reflected on the causes of the conditions of their own times and found them in these magically effective blessings. The Blessing of Noah may be the earliest of them, but this is uncertain.