Life in the Moslem East

Front matter

3 oe att: @ ehalal Ofer eee ei eye!

; ae efit seeestetetety oe

Sat 4) eid t: piieith iota prime f nea + eee rae as nem *1eie ele

Preface

The third difficulty, and perhaps the most serious one, has been in the distance from the publishers, which has made it impossible for me to correct the proofs.

In conclusion I would add that we feel that it is our duty as well as pleasure to express our sincerest thanks to our friends, Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Edward Poynter, for their warm interest and help, without which I doubt if I should have had the courage to undertake the translation.

Constantinople, May Ist, 1910.

CHAPTER I, In Bacpap 'e! te: ‘ai istore Citak inte iy ter te’

Serdabs—Means ag Na pa on the Tigris Pact and Present Bagdad—Inhabitantt—The Tomb of Zobeida— Mosques of Abdul Kadir, Ahmed Heaeh and Sauk-el-Gazele —Kazmain—Mosque of Imam Musa—Life in Bagdad, its Peculiarities—Nomads— Amusements— Buffaloes—Snakes— Bagdad Nights—Unpleasant Neighbours—Dervishes and their Orders—Orders of Rufai and Mevlevie—Begging Dervishes

-—What are the Conditions of the Existence of Dervishes—

Initiation—Miraculous Powers of the Sheikhs—Travelling Dervishes—Kalandars.

II. MESopoTAMIA, THE PORTALS OF THE DESERT ...

IIT.

IV.

Desert Politics—Our Caravan—Goanese—Mendoza aid Fernando—Hamdanie and Seglawie—Character of Méesopotamia—Nefuds—Duradji—Ceremony of Meetings in the Desert—In Camp—Original Adventures of Turks with Arabs—Ancient Canals—Duradj Shooting—At the Wells— First Acquaintance with the Daughters of the Desert—The Disappearance of Ahmed—His Reappearance—Unexpected Results of Medical Treatment—Blood Feuds.

Tue Ruins oF BABYLON AND AMONG THE Kurps AND YEZIDIS

Hillah, its DavutarioneCuneronn ‘Tablete-Ruins of Hake

lon—The Work of Turning the Euphrates—Ruins of Nimrod

or Aker Rouff—Kurds in the Himrin Mountains—Charac-

ter of Kurds—Invasion of Urumiah by Sheikh Obeidullah—

Yezidis—Devil Worshippers—Sect of Ali Allahis.

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD . . ‘.

The Plague Epidemics of the Ninerecnse Cott the

Diary of a French Consul—Historical Route of Epidemics

—A Dinner Spoiled by Dread Tidings—Appearance of Vv

PAGE vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE Cholera in Bagdad—Population Flees—Life in the. Desert—

Arabs Attack Us—Punishment of Prisoners—Return to Town —The Further Progress of the Epidemic—The Plague of the Eighteenth Century in Constantinople Described by an Eyewitness—Symptoms—Measure of Prevention—Treatment— Depopulation Caused by Plague—Its Periodical Appearance —Fanaticism One of the Chief Causes Making it Impossible to Fight Epidemics.

V. SUNNITES AND SHIITES, AND THE RELICS OF THE PROPHET 74 Division of Moslem World into Two Factions—The Koran the Foundation of Islamism—Views Regarding Paradise and Hell—Chief Factors towards Obtaining Paradise: Prayers, Fasts, Pilgrimages to Holy Places, Alms, Sacred Wars—Teachings Regarding Pure and Impure—Ablutions—Daily and Special Prayers—Fasts—What are Sunnites and Shiites?— Original Cause of the Division—Twelve Shiite Imams— Imam Mehdi—Mudjtaheids—Their Importance Among the Shiites—Shiite Hatred of Abu-Bekr, Omar and Osman— Result of Split in the Mohammedan Religion—Religious Wars—Letter of Selim I. to Shah Ismael—The Passing of the Moslem Holy Places from Shiites to Sunnites—The Persian Sacred Banner—The Sacred Banner of the Kor—The Origin of the Prophet’s Sacred Banner—Its Passing into the Possession of the Turkish Sultan—The Significance of Sacred Banners—Sacred Garments and their Origin—Ceremony of 15 Ramadan—Two Holy Teeth—Holy Beard—Mysterious Appearance in Various Parts of the Mohammedan World of Hair Significance of these Relics—Inferior Relics.

VI. PitcRIMAGES AND CARRYING OF BopizESs To THE HoLy PLACES OF THE SHIITES IN TURKEY. . . . . 97 Pilgrimages Obligatory to Moslems—Places of Worship Common to Both Sunnites and Shiites—Titles of Meshedi, Kerbeli and Hadji—The Mohammedan Calendar—Lunar and Solar Years—Names of Lunar Months and their Derivations—Formula for Transposing Moslem and Christian Eras—Pilgrimages of Caucasians and Persians to Holy Places

CONTENTS Vil

CHAPTER PAGE Found in Turkey—Unexpected Discovery Made by a Physician—Contraband Caravanserai—Suburb of Kerbela— Ancient Canals—City of Kerbela, Population and Professions— Torbas—Revenues—Treasures of Kerbela Nedjef— Mudjtaheids—Occupation of Inhabitants—Cities of Cufa and Samara—Hadji Mirza Hassan, Most Popular Persian Mudjtaheid—His Part in the Abolishment of the Tobacco Monopoly in Persia.

VII. Arasra, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES . . . 113 The Camel and its Significance in the Life of ie Bedouid —Arabia Geographically—Bible Life as Seen at the Present Time—Limits of Territory Occupied by Nomadic Arabs —Hadramuth—The Great Desert—Oman, El Hassa, Nejd and the Nefuds—Cause of Isolation of Nejd—Character of Nefuds—Red Locusts and Samkh as Principal Diet of the Bedouin and His Horse—Travellers Who Have Visited Nejd—Wahabees and Wahabeeism—-The Wahabee Kingdom —Occupation of the Hedjaz, Mecca, and Medina by Wahabees—Pillaging the Kerbela Mosque—Raids on Damascus— Expedition of Mehmed Ali Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha—Occupation of Nejd by Egyptian Forces—Fall of Wahabeeism —Struggle for Supremacy—lIbn-al-Rashid—His Popularity— Hayil—Abuse of Pilgrims—Climate of Nejd—Slavery—Nejd the Cradle of the Arabs—Mesopotamia—F]1 Jezira—El Irak —Shamiya—Suffering in Years of Drought—Importance of the Camel in the Bedouin’s Life—Pacing Camels—One-humped and Two-humped Camels—Examples of Endurance —Shortcomings of Camels—Examples of Camels’ Vengeance.

VIII. BEpovIns . . . . 130 What are Bedouins, Hidkaris aed F ellticen aren A between their ‘Tribes, Sub-tribes and Families—Care in Preserving Pureness of Blood—Sheikhs, their Significance, Powers and Duties—Customs—Religion—Abstinence of Bedouins and its Cause—Early Hardships—Marriage— Polygamy—Divorce—On what Bedouins Exist—Hunting with Hounds and Falcons—Sheep Raising—Raids—Sheep

Vill

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

IX.

X. From BaAcpDAD To BASSORAH . -« ««

XI.

Lifting—Ghazus—Blood Feuds—The Bedouin in Poetry and in Reality—Explanation of Hospitality of Bedouins. ‘Their Idea Concerning Muscovites—Four Seasons of the Bedouin Year—Spring—Miigration, or “ Rahla”—Order of March—

Camping—Dry Milk as One of the Chief Items of Bedouins’

Diet—Their Period of Hunger—Bedouin’s Day—What ‘They Eat During Famine Period—Lack of Water—Diseases— Sacrifices, or “ Kurban ”’—Arrival of Guests—Justice—Position of Women.

THe ArAp Horse 1N ITs NativE LAND . . | . Horses of Arab Descent in Europe and Age wie es Produces the Finest Horses in the World—The Horse’s Power of Adapting Itself to its Food—Points of a Bedouin’s Horse—Limitation—Impossibility of Buying Thoroughbred Mares—Proverbs—Mares Owned in Shares—The Natural Condition of a Horse’s Life—The Origin of the Arab Horse —Are there Many Thoroughbred Arab Horses in Arabia?— Subdivisions of Breeds—Examples of the Bedouin’s Estimation of His Horse’s Genealogy—‘ Shammarie,”’ the Pearl of the Desert—Hunting the Wild Ass—Our Wild Ass in Meshed— Endurance of the Arab Horse—The Bedouin as a Rider— Colour of Horses—Points—Defects—Length of Horse Life —Bedouins’ ‘Treatment of the Horse—Our Arab Horses in Bagdad—Hamdanie, Seglawie and Rishan—Personal Observations.

“ Califah "—Bagdad Filters and Water Coole Rae of Ctesiphon and Seleucia—Suleiman Pak—Kut-el-Amara—The Shatt-el-Hai Canal—Lions in Mesopotamia and Persia—How Persians and Arabs Meet Lions—An Unexpected Lion Hunt —Sand-Storms—Kurna—Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil—Tomb of Ezra—Palm Groves—Importance of Palm ‘Tree—Palm Cultivation—Arrtificial Fertilisation—Varieties of Dates.

From BassorAH To MuscaT . . «uw . 6 8 le The Date Harvest—Cherdaks—Dates as an Item of Export

PAGS te

CONTENTS 1X

CHAPTER PAGE

—Sabiehs or Sabians, Followers of John the Baptist—New and Old Bassorah—S. S. “ Kilwa ’””—Mohammerah—Karun Behmishahr—On the Bar—Somali Fight—Bushire Shark Fishing—Bender-Abbas—Hardships of the Persian Gulf— Dominions of the Sultan of Oman—Muscat—Occupation of the Inhabitants of Muscat—English Gunboats—Commerce— Climate—Muscat Lion.

XII. Bompay, CASTES, AND THE TOWERS OF SILENCE .. . 207 Bombay, its Significance—Variety of Nationalities—From the “Slavansky Bazaar” to Watson’s Hotel—History and Development of Caste—Laws of Manu—Principle of Preserving Race of the Conquerors Distinct—Marriages— Caste as Seen To-day, and its Effect on Daily Life—English Feeling of Caste towards Natives—History of Bombay—Parsis—Similarity of Russian and Indian Styles of Architecture—Personal Reminiscences—Tower of Silence —My Acquaintance with Parsis—Baku and the Eternal Fire—Zoroaster, His Teaching—Zend Avesta—Traces of Zoroastrianism in the Persian Religion—Gabars, their Former and Present State in Persia—‘‘ Mobeds,” ‘‘ Andjuman ”— Rites and Ceremonials—Shah Abdul Azim near Teheran— Ruins of Rei and Tower of Silence.

XIII, TuHucs 1n ee aan ro) Ma ty) tet (tal tet, 224 India Past and Pieente cece See Ne deual Relations of the Conquerors and Conquered—Hickley, Hutton and Colonel Meadows-Taylor—Two Opinions Concerning ‘Thugs—Condition of India in First Half of Nineteenth Century—Period of Disorder and Oppression—Trials by Ordeals—Formation of Bands of Robbers—Pindarees—Gussoons—Methods of Travelling—Thugs as Companions on the March—Doctrine of Thugs—Brahma, Vishnu and Siva—Goddesses—Bhowanee, or Kali—Initiation of Thugs, their Duties—Thank-Offerings—Division of Work among Bands—Inveiglers, Stranglers, Grave-Diggers—Thug Methods of Working—First Intimation of Thugs in 1810—Trial of 1812—Expedition against Thugs—Commission Formed in 1830 to Investigate x CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE Accusations Brought against Thugs—Conclusion of Commission and Result of its Work—From Bombay to Jiddah— Perim—Circumstances Connected with Annexation of Perim

—Aden.

XIV. Mecca, THE MosSLem’s PALESTINE . . 3) Uke here aes Pilgrimages and their Significance—The Sr of Mecca as a Sacred Spot—Christian Travellers Who Have Visited Mecca—Ancient Cult of the Kaaba—Cause of Accepting Such a Cult—Mohammed’s View of Pilgrimages to Mecca— Foundation of Mecca and the Kaaba—Stone of Abraham —Divine Origin of the “ Black Stone’”—Spring of ‘“ Zem Zem ”—Golden Water ‘Trough—Sacred Places Situated near the Kaaba—Conditions under which Pilgrimages May be Made—Pilgrimages of Women and by Proxy—Appearance of Hadj—“ Ihram”—Day of Doubt, Day of Knowledge, Day of Sacrifice—Rites Connected with these Days—Mena, Arafat—Stoning the Devil—Féte of Kurban Bairam—Day of Drying Meat in the Sun—Why Mohammedans are Advised to Leave Mecca upon the Completion of their Obligatory Rites—Population of Mecca—Causes of Mortality among Pilgrims—Sanitary Condition of Mecca during the Hadj of 1907—Prevalent Diseases and their Causes—Unfavourable Conditions for Carrying Bodies by Sea—Quarantines.

XV. PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA . « 2.269 Boundary of Holy Land—Tribes of Medina “Water ao —Date Palms—Last Years of Mohammed’s Life—His Pilgrimage to Mecca—Sermon from Mount Arafat—Return to Medina—Rivals—I]Iness—Last Testament—Last Attendance at the Mosque—Absence of Direct Male Heirs— Favourite Wives—Their Influence—Property Left by Mohammed—The Sword of the Prophet and its History— Tomb of the Prophet-—Abu-Bekr, Omar and Others—Muzzawir—Mosque of Kuba—Cemetery of El Bakia—Other Mosques—Forced Worship at Omar’s Tomb—Staff of the Mosque—Eunuchs—Slave Trade—Inhabitants of Medina— Shezeefs and Sayids—The Damascus Caravan—Its Historical

CONTENTS x1

CHAPTER PAGE Origin—Surrie Emini—Ceremony of Start from Constantinople—Sacred Camel—Mahmal—Gathering of Pilgrims in Damascus—General Character of Route—Akiam, Sakkas, Muhafez—Stages—Sanitary Conditions—Order of March —Tent Pitching—Appearance of Camp, Food of Pilgrims— Water—Martyrs or Shahudies—Caravan During Epidemics —Robberies by Bedouins and Their Causes—Road between Mecca and Medina—Mutual Relations of Bedouins—Kharbi —The Hedjaz Railway and its Importance.

XVI. IN THE LAND oF THE “ LION AND THE SUN” . . . 290 Climate of Persia—Forms of Irrigation—Three Types of Villages—Cultivation of the Soil—Sheep-raising—Haying —Gardens and Orchards—Three Enemies of the Farmer— The Agricultural Class—Persian Cities—Baths—Instances of Burying Alive—Squares—Street Dogs.

XVII. THE PostTIOoN OF WOMEN IN THE MOSLEM WokrLD, ACCORDING TO THE TEACHINGS OF THE KORAN . . 304

Woman as a Creature Distinguished by Her Love of Ornaments and Disputing without Reason—Woman as the Property of Her Husband—Principle of Control over Woman as Found in the Koran—Are Women Admitted to Paradise?—Harems and their Exclusiveness—The Koran’s View as to the Benefits of Marriage—Polygamy—Principle of Equality among Wives—Easiness of Divorce One of the Curses of Islamism—Property Rights of Women.

XVIII. THe Position oF WOMEN IN PERSIA .. . Beals Costumes of City and Village Women—Beroun and ine deroun—Harem Servants—Occupation of Women—Superstitions—Excursions—Visiting Shrines—Education of Women —Betrothalsk—Weddings—Various Forms of Marriage—A Wife Agdé and Segé—Monogamy and the Reason for its Preponderance—Marriage with Slaves—Marriage—Marriage with Christians—Position of Christian Wives in Harems— Marriage of Mohammedan Women with non-Mohammedans Forbidden—Divorce the ‘Husband’s Privilege—Uncer-

Xil

CONTENTS

CHAPTER tain Position of the Woman in Her Husband’s House— Harem Intrigues—Powers of Persians as Husbands and Fathers.

XIX. Perstan Days oF Mourninec, FAsts AND FEASTS ., .

Characteristics of Shiite Fetes—Friday—The Sacred Month of Muharram and its First Ten Days—Historical Origin of these Celebrations—Religious Processions—Mystery Plays— Tekke Actors—Birthdays of Mohammed and Ali—Fasting During Ramadan—Anniversary of Ali’s Death—Night of el-Kadr—First of Month of Shawwal—Omar-Kushan— Kurban Bairam—The Persian New Year—Its Origin and Significance in the Life of Persians—Calls—Solar Year— The Calendar in the Persian’s Life—Divisions of Summer and Winter into Periods—Divisions of the “Iwenty-four Hours.

XX. SHUTE PILGRIMAGES TO THEIR SACRED PLACES IN PERSIA

Reason of Meshed’s Being Formerly Inaccessible to Europeans —History of Meshed—City of TTus—Sanabad—Meshed at the Present Time—Sacred Rights of Refuge, or “ Bast ”—Causes Giving Rise to This Privilege—The Shrine of Imam Riza as a “ Bast ’"—Muteveli Bashi, Rezavi and Tulabi—Abuse of “Bast ’”’-—Ways of Entering the “ Bast”—Conversion of Christians to Mohammedanism—Sani Kuhneh—The Tomb of the Imam—Mosque of Gauhar Shad—Sani Nouv—Libraries—Income and Expenses of the Shrine—Miracles—Stones as Pilgrims—Kum—Mosque of Fatima—Grave of the Shahs.

XXI. LAw PROCEEDINGS IN Persta, RETALIATION, AND TEACH-

INGS CONCERNING THE “ PRICE OF BLOOD” AND

PUNISHMBNTS U0 hi/c5) seth /o0) ken ieh ie alle olive Unchangeableness of Persian Social Life—The Koran’s Principle of an “Eye For an Eye”—Who Can, According to the Shariat, be Appointed as Judge—Shariat and Urf—Ministry of Justice—Civil Law Proceedings—Mohassels—Box of Justice—Criminal Laws According to the Koran —Punishments Laid Down by Shariat for Theft, Murder,

PAGE oes

CONTENTS X1il

_ CHAPTER PAGE etc.—Punishments According to Urf for the Same Crimes— Home-made Punishments for Theft—Punishment for Spreading False Reports, for Robbery and Physical Injuries— Fatalism—Why a Dull Knife is Used in Beheading—Three Forms of Murder as Admitted by the Shariat—Price of Blood for Man, Woman, Slave, and Unbelievers—Price for Physical Injuries—Right of Retaliation and Blood Feuds—Right of Refuge—Instances of Blood Feuds—Blood Feuds among Nomads and in High Life—Chief Points of Difference in Moslem Laws and Those Recognised by Europeans,

OAD EEE PERSIAN AT) LLOME (chica Urantnven i uspeeaan tay et Ot Nay A Oe Manner of Building His House—Enderoun and Beroun— Cellars— Water-Reservoirs— Kiursie—Summer-Resorts—Absence of Fashions—Daily Occupations—Presents—Food, Lawful and Unlawful—Wine Forbidden—Persian Table—Sweets —Gez—W ine-Making—Hashish and Opium Serious Menaces to Persia—Edible Varieties of Earth—Amusements— Tamashas—Dinners—Sports—Falconry—Training of Falcons—Special Forms of Sport—Races—Jugglers and Gymnastics,

[ILLUSTRATIONS

STREET OF BAGDAD . . . » © « w ww « « Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

MLOSOUECOF AMAMLAZAM: HANIFR: 4°34 ¥4 ee cae ee 8 eet ar GRISVATISAGDAD ¢ 65 321,306 a eh Ae ES Pusu r OF SHIEK HVABDUL KADIR °); <) 0. 5) au tae art 2G Toms oF ZoBeIpA, HARoUN-AL-RASHID’s FAvoRITE WIFE . 36 Bere CLSEIPUNV ARRIOR SAN Aye fio 00.1 A ci MMM UE teak eS 0 geo Birs-Nmmrop, on Tower or Nimrop. . . . . . . «. 52 OUTSIDE THE CITY WALL, THE SQUARE OF IMAM AZAM AND

Mite WIVILe tl OSPITAL OF | DACDAD fais os ae ol ae ed ahe eC 60 THE INTERIOR OF MOSQUE OF SHIEKH ABDUL KapiR .. . 68 PoNTOON BripGE Across THE TIGRIS AT BAGDAD . . . .. 82 De SPROUL MANS FT USSHEN 00s) Feats s fy ie vel poet ehiters Ck leet t OD PRADEEP Re ea at ee een g CePra ea ey et? TOO Mosqguet oF IMAm Musa, KAzMaIN, (front view) . . . 108 ee eta RIPE Aa” Abie ie only i PY ce a ee GES wy Og Group oF ARABS SHOWING THE “ KAFIYAH,” OR HEAD-DrREsS 124 PAE ePMISIN tN Tr apr ata dek SiN ht, ote Mb Su CQ geen ss ure eel E38 Group OF BEDOUIN MEN, WOMEN AND CHILDREN . . . 148 PAE TOR SIME: (el tradl es caine ua okt Dates ead eC ae eri Bay EUROPEAN CHILDREN RIDING IN Boxes ON DoNKEY Back . 168 Ticris: ENGLISH STEAMERS RUNNING BETWEEN BAGDAD AND

RS RAO AH pate seat mt ie Or te ore e eaten. Ge INSP A eae ooh T Pe ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZATION OF DaTE PatmS . . . . . 184 MosguE OF SHIEKH MAARONF KER RHIE, ON THE TIGRIS

Reyer Tine aed ADAM acres ve!) dats tak aheimninniay it «ner eat lee TO Pee ORC TESIPH ON aretha ba au “aia eke ae, balmy ane We BO Town or BaSsoRAH ON THE CREEK . «©. 3 « « « 210 ROMP LOMBA YS LE ARSEES#) tay cee cb Sc eA ieee Suna Pek era LS BisDs VY ReVIEW OPK ERBELANE sit o.5 sc) das) oh) wy ethical Mee Court oF Mosque oF SHIEKH ABDUL KapiR . . . . . 250

ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

GENERAL VIEW OF CiTy OF NEDJEF . «: w «2 wi iwi. « Type OF ARAB. PHYSICIAN | (7 5:0.) “aie teh cies) eel eae ee Types oF: DERVISH 6.0) Eos i ie es ais en ee PERSIAN. WOMAN)? 6482 in) af Me aon Gana bee PERSIAN WOMAN DRAWING ON THE OUT OF Door TROWSERS Persian Lapy Raisinc’ Hee Vite. oo. So eee PersIAN LApies LISTENING TO Music . ..... =. MunarramM “ Biroopy PROCESSION” . . . ... - Fiat Roors, From Top oF MILiTaRy QUARTERS . .. . Russian CoNSULATE,. MEESHED 23) 40a se) ee PERSIAN KKURSIE: sid) Spot el be awl a ce Typr oF PALACE IN TEHERAN SS 6) Ge us ee SHAH’s SHOOTING Box IN THE MOUNTAINS . « «+ « «

Par heioase os ORE Sok 7; se ee! * i

Pa Hotta cate he be Re ho see aes es ATE ae At Ae Wve : ‘ ‘ 9 fe iP Ae oP a4 Hy i ‘ ‘ 7 % b AY pa ae i ¢ ae | : ' f yA we 1a as Hs wg nape J TT ot a re F 4 1 : a) ; Yh & ¥ mel hoe s Ape ; prank as ae : é pe et te iat i ; ,

*

.

i 4 ot? Eee t , t ‘ Ae ¢ a ‘ ww . w ane Shin Sia av eh Te ae : ; ad J ' ‘i a Diets bis eo Va \ ’ l. af at as

~

» va é oe ty. ; : , oer A ae ¢ ay anne ri

CHAPTER I IN BAGDAD

Serdabs—Means of Navigation on the Tigris—Past and Present Bagdad—Inhabitants—The Tomb of Zobeida—Mosques of Abdul Kadir, Ahmed Heaeh and Sauk-el-Gazele—Kazmain—Mosque of Imam Musa—Life in Bagdad, its Peculiaritiee—Nomads—Amusements—Buffaloes—Snakes—Bagdad Nights—Unpleasant Neighbours—Dervishes and their Orders—Orders of Rufai and Mevlevie —Begging Dervishes—What are the Conditions of the Existence of Dervishes—Initiation—Miraculous Powers of the Sheikhs— Travelling Dervishes—Kalandars.

‘BAGDAD, October; that is to say, the season of the year when the inhabitants of the city are thinking of moving out of the underground rooms called “serdabs,” in which the hottest months are passed.

In Bagdad, and a few other towns of Western Asia, where for six months of the year the thermometer rises to 115° F., in every house these subterranean chambers are built. The deeper the ‘“‘serdab ” the cooler it is, but at the same time the damper. The word “ cooler,” when applied to anything describing Bagdad, must be taken comparatively, as even in the best serdabs the thermometer varies from 92° to 99° F. These rooms are usually kept dark, the light entering through small windows, sometimes openings, where instead of glass is placed a lattice of palm filled with the prickly camel’s thorn, called “agul.” Several times a day water is sprinkled on these thorns, and the moisture thus formed cools the hot wind as it passes through the rooms, giving a comparatively refreshing breeze. But towards sunset these serdabs become unbearably close, and then the entire city mounts to the flat roofs, where they dine and sleep.

As I write these lines, living in a different climate and among quite other surroundings, and separated from the period of which I am writing by nearly twenty years, before my eyes as by magic comes the picture we used to see from the height of our roofs: the Tigris shining in the moonlight, which in that cloudless sky is unusually radiant; the green belt of palm and orange gardens watered by this Biblical river bounding Mesopotamia, the cradle of the human race, and the site, according to some more or less problematical theories, of the Garden of Eden; the scene of the feats of Nimrod and of Nebuchadnezzar—at that time a flowering garden, now a desert. But now, as then, the troubled waters of the Tigris sparkle and shine in the moonlight, as they rush by. In perfect accord with the scene is the sound of the amateur singer who floats by in his round, cup-like boat of basket work smeared with bitumen, and guided by a sort of shovel in lieu of an oar. These bowls used instead of ordinary boats are mentioned by Herodotus, and are to be seen on some of the old Assyrian sculptures that date back 1,000 years before our era. ‘They are called “ guffas,” and are often of considerable size, capable of carrying 1,500 pounds or more.

The swift current of the Tigris, or “ Arrow,” makes the round form of these boats preferable to those of usual pointed shape. The swiftness of the waters of the Tigris fully justifies the name of “ Arrow,” for in the spring the current sweeps down at a speed of fully six miles an hour. Under these circumstances an ordinary boat is easily capsized, while these round boats prove to be more stable. Going down the river the guffa has two motions, the forward one and a constant rotating on its own axle.

This turning has the advantage of presenting a constant change in the landscape, but to the uninitiated it sometimes proves disagreeable, bringing on giddiness that can only be overcome by keeping one’s eyes fixed on the bottom of the boat—hardly an inspiring way of travelling. Against the current the guffas have to be towed. Aside from the guffas the only other native craft on the Tigris are sailboats called “ bellams,” built of palmwood and also covered like Noah’s ark of old with bitumen. iIhey sail with the current, and against it with favourable winds, but in a calm, or with head winds, they, | too, are towed by men. These bellams are to be met with mostly between Bagdad and Bassorah. Between Mosul and Bagdad the communication is by “ kelleks””—rafts made by inflating sheepskins, and by laying over them matting or a floor of branches or boards. Fifty or a hundred skins are often used in the construction of such a raft, which, on arriving at Bagdad, is broken up and the skins sold at a good profit. If passengers are carried, a tent or small hut can be arranged. The rafts float down with the speed of the current, from one to six miles an hour, according to the season of the year. As the raft passes villages, or the black tents of the half-nomadic tribes, the women often come out riding astride on a buffalo that swims alongside the raft, carrying on their heads curds, milk, butter and eggs to sell. In this way the traveller gets fresh supplies for his table and his sense of the picturesque satisfied at the same time. But other recollections come to me—not the autumn, but the hot season. The same moonlight, the same cloudless sky, but quite different impressions. Worn out by the continued heat one longs for a respite and a breath of cool air, and here on-the roof, though it is night and the bricks have been freely wet with cold water, the temperature is ninety-nine degrees or above. Even at this distance I cannot remember without a shudder the long, sleepless nights passed on the roof at Bagdad! Sometimes in addition the hot simoom blew, bringing clouds of the finest dust, and during such fearful nights cases of death by heat apoplexy not infrequently occurred. At such times the only relief to be found was in covering up head and all in a thick quilt.

With the first rays of the sun one has to go down to the verandas or gardens, ,and a little later to the dusky © serdabs where the whole day is spent, until the evening cool again permits of going up to the roof. And so we drag on day after day, without the possibility of escaping from the heat even for a few hours. Adding to this the numberless swarms of mosquitoes and other insects, scorpions, and sometimes snakes that frequent the serdabs, the reader can understand that the mere fact of existence may become a burden.

The derivation of the name of Bagdad is disputed. Some authorities claim it to come from Baga, the name of the mythical god of the Chaldees; others consider it to be from Bag, garden; and a third supposition traces it to the name of a dervish who enjoyed great popularity at the time of the building of Bagdad. The city is built on both banks of the Tigris, connected by a pontoon bridge 700 feet long. The city proper, however, is on the left bank of the river. Here are to be found the administrative buildings, the ancient citadel, mosques, caravan serais and all the foreign consulates, excepting the Persian. The city on the right bank has now dwindled to a mere suburb inhabitated by Shiite Arabs, and here, too, is the Persian consulate.

The population of Bagdad is estimated to be about 145,000, of which 50,000 are Sunnite Mohammedans, and 35,000 Shiite Mohammedans. Of Christian sects there are Greeks, Greek-Catholics, Armenians and Armenian-

Catholics, in all about 7,000. The Jews are estimated at 52,000.

Bagdad was founded 763 A.D. by the second Abbasside caliph, Abu Jaffar-el-Mansur, according to his own plans. It took three years to build the city, and a good description of it has come down to us. The city was surrounded by a wall thirty feet high and eight feet wide. The palace of the caliph, of which not a trace now remains, was of fabulous beauty. Twenty-four thousand streets were laid out, each of which possessed its own mosque and public bath. One hundred and fifty canals ran through the city carrying water from the Tigris, and across which were thrown one hundred and fifty bridges. By the order of the Caliph Jaffar-el-Mansur a colossal canal was dug and can yet be traced. From this main artery ran six hundred small canals carrying water to irrigate the suburbs of Bagdad, now a desert.

Thanks to its geographical position Bagdad flourished rapidly, and during the reign of Haroun-al-Rashid became the centre of the Eastern trade and the seat of culture. The fame of its glory and untold riches spread throughout the then known world, and has come down to us through the Arab historians, who devoted many pages to describing its palaces, mosques and public buildings, at a period when Europe was yet sunk in barbarism.

At the close of the ninth century the population of Bagdad is said to have been 2,000,000, that is as many as there are now to be found in the whole huge province of Bagdad.

Haroun-al-Rashid fully merited his world renown and may well be termed the “ Caliph of the Sun.” He was a contemporary and ally of Charlemagne, with whom he kept in frequent communication, and we read of many presents passing between these two great representatives of the Eastern’and Western civilisation.

Among the gifts sent by the caliph to Charlemagne is mentioned a wonderful clock, the first ever introduced into Europe.

Haroun-al-Rashid died in the full strength and prime of life at the age of forty-seven, after reigning gloriously twenty-three years, and was buried within the sacred mosque of the eighth Imam Riza, at Meshed.

Already during the reign of the third son of Haroun-al-Rashid the decline of Bagdad began. The capital — was transferred to Samara, ninety-three miles from Bagdad. The caliph turned the slaves captured in Turkestan into an army, and though he led them to victorious wars, they were mutinous, and disorders, culminating in civil war, followed. By 1118 the Abbasside caliphate had lost much of its former prestige and power, and by 1258 Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of Jenghiz Khan, who ordered the execution of all sayids and wise men; during his wholesale massacres 350,000 souls perished.

In 1401 Bagdad was taken by Tamerlane and then passed successively from Persians to Turks and back until it came finally into the hands of the latter in 1638. This event is commemorated by the conquering Sultan Murad IV. in an inscription over one of the citadel gates —now bricked up—through which he broke into the city.

It is not to be wondered at that from the thirteenth century the importance and power of Bagdad diminished, its fabulous wealth vanished and its population decreased. This was hastened by the epidemics which devastated Bagdad, the great plague of 1831 carrying off over half of the population. In the Bagdad of our days it needs the liveliest imagination to reproduce that once famous queen of the Eastern cities. |

At the present time Bagdad serves as the commercial centre joining the trade of Europe and Asia. The chief

PP ar # AS a — _ all ie Tt Se ? a

- 4"

ahem +

> ge a

- rif

4 5 4 ‘ “sy 4 asd ‘ Jo

— Ae -

! =~ a ers 7 , he exports, amounting to the sum of $7,500,000, are grain, wool, feathers, licorice, tobacco, silk, skins, hides, gum, carpets and horses. In exchange are imported Manchester goods, iron, tea, coffee and sugar, in all amounting to the sum of $4,800,000.

From a distance, and especially from the deck of the steamer as one approaches, Bagdad is very beautiful, with its mosques and minarets framed by the lofty date palms and the noble river in the foreground; but the moment one sets foot on shore, and sees the narrow, dirty streets, the illusion vanishes. Few cities have been built and rebuilt on so many successive layers of ruins. Very little remains to mark the golden age of Bagdad, though one constantly comes across the yet more ancient bricks bearing the stamp of Nebuchadnezzar that have been brought from the ruins of Babylon and are used in modern buildings. We do not know even where the famous palace of Haroun-al-Rashid stood. From this epoch remains only the tomb of Zobeida, Haroun-al-Rashid’s favourite wife, and Khan Ortma, a handsome and extensive caravanseral. All other ancient buildings are of a later date and present an unusually happy combination of Persian and Arabic styles of architecture. Worthy of notice among the latter is the mosque over the grave of Abdul Kadir Delani, restored by Sultan Murad IV. in the seventeenth century. Abdul Kadir is one of the most revered of the Sunnite saints, and great donations have been received by this mosque for its support and that of the school connected with it. Its yearly revenue is 50,- 000 Turkish pounds, or about $231,000. Among the few monuments of interest must be added also the unusually beautiful mosque of Ahmed Heaeh, with its minarets; the mausoleum over the tomb of Haroun-al-Rashid’s brother, built in the thirteenth century; the mausoleum of Joshua, which is in the care of the Jews, and, finally, the mosque of Sauk-el-Gazele, with its beautiful minarets one hundred and eight feet in height.