The Life and Teachings of Jesus: According to the Earliest Records

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Preface

portrait ol Jesus furnished by what are recognized as the oldest records in the gospels are the best demonstration that we have here the testimony of the earliest eye-witnesses whose words have been preserved. Through their eyes we can again look upon the divine Friend and Teacher of men. As we listen to his words, as they have rec(»ded them, we are captivated anew by their irresbtible truth and charm. Involuntarily we echo the words of an early auditor: "Surely never man taught as he taught." Here is the eternal Jesus, practically unobscured by later philosophies or doctrines. He is it who is surely destined again to draw to himself, as he did in the days of his flesh, the .busy men of affairs, who are "bound to the wheel of things" or who are blinded by ignorance or prejudice; for he has for each of them a plain, practical message that means freedom and happiness and the fulness of life.

In the Introduction and in connection with each chapter, the most important data, which enable the student to distinguish between the older and later records, have been presented and the significant gospel parallels noted. The detailed references in the Appendix will guide the student to the larger literature, as well as suggest my indebtedness to previous writers. The conclusions and convictions presented in this volume have been gradually wrought out in the dassroom and in the larg^ school of experience. The constant aim has been to present in dear, non-technical form the essential facts and thus to enable the reader to draw his own condusions regarding the many vital questions involved.

To five men, who have read the manuscript and from their knowledge of the Bible and of life have contributed valuable suggestions, espedally regarding the best form in which to present the results, I owe a large debt: Professor Jeremiah W. Jenks, of New York University; Henry A. Sherman and Harold B. Hunting, of the house of Charles Scribner's Sons; and William D. Murray and Harrison S. Elliott, of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association. I am also under obligation to two of my colleagues in the University, Professors Frank C. Porter and Benjamin W. Bacon, for the light th^ have thrown, both in their published works and in private discussion, upon the interpretation of the life and teachings of Jesus.

CF.IL

Yals UNivBBfirrTy Christnuu, 1912.

VI

INTRODUCTION THE BBOOBDS OF THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF JESUS

Fiaa

L Thb Hxoobds Outside thb Gobpeib. 1

I. Ohristiaiiity at Work In the World. — II. Tbe Romaa HiBtorians. — ^III. The Jewish Writera. — ^lY. Bvidenoe Found in the Oataoombs. — ^V. The Uncanoolcal Gospels. — ^VI. The Recently Discovered Sayings of Jesus. — ^VII. The Writings of the Ohurch Fathers. — ^VIII. The Apocryphal Oospds. — IX. Acts and Revelation.— X. Paul's Bpistles. — ^XI. The Value of the BxtrsrOospel Testiniony.

n* Tbb Contents and Chara.ctebibt[ob of the Four Gos-

ncLS 10

I. The Oontente of the Gospel of Mark. — ^11. Its Plan. — ^in. Its OharacteristiCB. — lY. Aim of the Gospel. — Y. The Contents of Matthew. — ^YI. OharaetecistlcB and Aims of the Gospel of Matthew. — ^YII. The Oontents of the Gospel of Luke. — ^YIII. Characterlstfos of This Gospel. — IX. Aim of the Gospel. — ^X. The Contents of the Fourth Gospel. — ^XI. OharacterlstiaB and Aim of the Fourth Gospel* — ^XII. A CknnpBilna of Uw Four GkiQMls.

m. Tbb Wbitten Sources Undbrlttng the Go0pel&«. . . 19

I. The Relation of the First Three Gospels to Bach Other. — II. Their Agreement in Substance and Yerbal Detail. — ^III. The Synoptic Problem and Its Solution. -^I Y. The Important Yariations of the Fourth GospeL — Y. The Barly Tradition Regarding the Origin of the Gospel of Made. — ^YI. Mark's Sources. — YII. The Bariiest Record of Jesus' Work and Teachings (Q).— YIU. Characteristlos and Yalue of the Barltost Sowoiw

IV. Tbb Litebart Histoet and Date of the Gospels. • 28

•

I. The Period of Oral Transmission. — II. Influences that Gave Rise to the Gospels. — ^in. The Bariiest Baoords. — ^lY. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke.— V« Tbs Qoopsl of John.— YI. Oonclusiona.

YU

V* The Historical Background of Jesus' Life and Work. 34

I. The Division of Palestine After the Death of Herod the Great. — II. Judea under the Rule of Rome. — III. Duties of the Procurators. — IV. Tlie Organization and Authority of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin. — V. The Rule of the Procurators. — VI. The Character and Rule of Herod Antipas. — VII. Rome's Strength and Weakness. — ^VIII. The Needs of the Roman World.

THE EARLY LIFE AND WORK OF JESUS * S CXXI. Jssus' Birth, Bothood, and Early TRAiNma. 43

I. The Account of Jesus* Birth. — ^11. The Place and Date of His Birth. — III. His Home. — IV. The Life at Nazareth. — ^V. Jesus' Educational Opportunities. —

VI. His Visit to the Temple at the Age of Twelve.—'

VII. His Acquaintance with the Scriptures of His Race. — ^VIIL The Young Master Builder.

S CXXn. The Personalitt and TEAcniNa of John the

Baphst 67

I. The Records of John's Birth and Work. — II. Hla Character and Aims. — III. His Teachings. — IV. His Symbol of Baptism. — ^V. The Results of His Work.

§ CXXTTT. Jesus' Baptism and Temptation 62

I. The Reasons Why Jesus Went to John. — II. Literary Form of the Record. — III. The Significance of the Baptismal Vision. — IV. The Meaning of the Aocount of Jesus' Temptation. — ^V. The Different PhaseB of Jesus' Temptation.

{ CXXIV. Jesus and John the Baptist 69

I. The Gospel Evidence That Jesus Worked First in

Judea. — II. John's Arrest. — III. His Later Message

to Jesus. — IV. Jesus' Estimate of John. — ^V. The Ao-

oount of John's Death.

S CXXV. Jesus' Early Work in Galilee 75

Matt. 4"*, Mark l"-** (c/. Matt. 4"-". Luke 6i-«), Joba IMb-Ko, Mark l^-** (c/. Luke 4u-«*, Matt. 8i«->0.

.*• VIU

I. The Beoord. — II. BeaBons Why Jwu Went to O*- pemaum. — ^III. The Alms and Methods fai the Early Oalllean Work. — IV. The Call of the Six Fishermen.^ V. The Site of Capernaum. — ^VI. A Sabbath In Oapef^ naimi. — ^VII. Jesus* Significant DedaUm.

I CXXVI. Jesus' Pofulasitt and the BsoiMNiNa of thb

Pharisaic Opposition 84

I. The Record of the Growing OpposSti<». — ^11. Tba Causes of the Pharisaic Opposition. — III. The Charges Which the Pharisees Made against Jesus.

§ CXXVn. The Gospel Miracles 03

I. The Significance of the Gospel Miracles. — ^11. JesosT Attitude toward Miracles. — III. Miracles in the His* tory of Barly Bellglons. — lY. The Canons of Interpretation Employed by Critical Historians. — V. The DiflTerent Types of Recorded Miracles. — ^VI. The Slg* nlflcance of the Illustrations of Jesus' Power Over Natura— YII. Conclusions.

S CXXVm. The Call and Traininq of Jesus' Disciples 108

I. Jesus' Puxpose In Calling His Disciples. — ^11. The Personnel of the Twelve. — III. The CondltloDS of Active Discipleship. — ^lY. Jesus* Fellowship with His Disciples. — V. The Ministering Women. — ^VI. Jesus* Commission to the Twelve. — ^VII. Jesus* Reason for Sendhig Out the Twelve. — ^VIIL The Betum of the Twelve.

JESUS' FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS S CXXDL The Aims and Methods of the GbeatTeachbb 122

ix

I. Jams the TeMlMr.— n. Bis Attf tad* towMd tiM BvUflr TMCbera of Hit Rbm. — ^III. His Ainu m a TflMbor. — ^lY. Th« 0«nenl OharaoterisMoi of Hfi TMChlnc Msthodi.— v. Th* Lllitnr7 Form cf Hli TmmAiIiicb*

liUke 15 (c/. Man. 19^*-^*), Matt. 7*-" (ef. Luke ll«-<*). I. Oarraot Jewish Ideal of Ood. — II. The Growth of the BeUef hi the Fathorhood of God.— III. Jem' Teachtaig Begardhig the Nature of God. — IV. God'i Beadinees to Forgive the Shmer. — Y, Jeeue' TMChlog Eegarding God's Beadhiess to Answer Prajrer.

I CXXXI. Man's Attitude toward God 142

Matt. «»-•'. «»••. »•-". ». «. Luke ll»-« {cf. Matt. 6«-m). Luke 18i-i«. 171. •, Mark ll«-» {cf. Matt. 2in. «). Matt. 6«-w {cf. Luke 12»-»). Matt. ««••« {cf. Luke 12m-"). I. Jesus' OoQoeptioa of Man. — ^11. The Importance of the Bight Attitude in Worship. — III. Jesus' Type of Prayer. — ^IV. The Value of Persistency and HumQity in Prayer. — V. The Invbiclble Power of Faith. — ^VL Trust That Lsayes No Place for Worry.

ICXXXH The EmoDOM OF God 150

I. The Different Ckmoeptions of the Kingdom of Ood tai the Old Testament. — II. Jesus' Descriptloa of the Characteristics of the Kingdom of God. — III. Oondltions of Entrance into the Kingdom. — ^lY. Blehes m Barrier to Entrance Into the Kingdom of God.— V. The Place and Meantaig of the Kingdom bi Jesuiff Teachings.

§ CXXXin. The Obuoationb of CmzENSHiP in the Ejng-

DOM of God 107

I. Shigle-Mhided Loyalty to God.— II. The Bight Use ef Wealth. — III. The Improving of Present Opportunities.— IV. The Use of Natural GUIs.

i CXXXIV. Man's Duties to His Neighbor and to Hoc-

belf 176

I. Th« Ffttal Orime of Wrong Thlnkliig.— n. B«t« erenoe and Begard for tbe Person of Another.-— Ill, ForgiyeneM. — IT. Charitable Judgment. — ^Y. Jefue* Law of LoY*. — ^VI. The Bzprenlon of Love toirard • Neighbor.

I CXXXV. Man's Responbibilett to Socibtt 1S8

I. Jesus' Method as a Social Teacher. — II. His Teachfaigs Regarding the Family. — III. Obligations of the IndlTidual to the State. — lY. Treatment of the Orlm* Inal.— V. Care of the Poor. — ^VI. Protection of the Weak and Ignorant.

I CXXXVl. The Rewards of the Christian Life 202

I. Jesus and the Jewish Doctrine of Rewards. — II. The Rewards of Faithful Service. — ^III. The Place of Happiness in Jesus* Teaching. — IV. The Original Form of the Beatitudes. — ^V. The OonditloDi of True Happiness.

THE CULMINATING EVENTS OF JESUS' LIFE f CXXXVIL The Crisis in Galilee 215

Luke 9T-« (cf. Mark 6i«-i«. Matt. 14>* <), Mark 6»-m (c/. Matt. 14"n, 16«-«», Luke 9»•»»•»^ Mark 8»-»«), Mark 6«-n (c/. Matt. 14n-»). Mark 7>-» {ef, Lidce ll"-«. Matt. 16»-»). Luke ll"-«« (c/. Matt. 12»-". «-«, Mark 8«-»). Luke 12i. >. Matt. 10"-*^ {cf. Matt. IOm-m. Luke 12*-*), Luke 12i*. Matt. 11m-m (c/. Luke IQu-u). I. The Attitude of Herod Antipas toward Jesus. — II. The Culmination of Jesus' Popularity. — III. The Grounds on Which Jesus Condemned the Scribes and Pharisees. — ^IV. His Wamhigs to His Disdples. — ^V. The Influence of This CrisiB upon His Method of Work.

f CXXXVm. Jesus in Retirement with His Disciples . . 227

I. The Request of the Syro-Phcanician Woman. — IL Peter's Confession. — ^III. Jesus' Fhvt Prediction of His Passion. — ^IV. The Story of the Traoaflguratfoa.— Y* The Healing of an Bplleptie.

PAOB

I CXXXIX. Incidents of the Last Joitbnetto JsiNmALEif 239

Mark 0»-«^ « {fif. MftU. IS*-*. Luk* »«•-«•). Luke O*!-**, Mark lOS Luke IS** (c/. Matt. IQi. >). Matt. 7»' >«. Luko 18«-« (Matt. 7«-w. 8". ", 23«'-»»). Mark 10«-«. Luke 22"* (c/. Matt. 20"". Luke lS»»-»<. 22««-"». Maik 10«), Luke 191-1*. Mark 10««b-»s (c/. Luke 18»-«. Matt. 20>»-m). I. Jeros Fadttff Jeruaalem. — ^11. The Nanrow Way of Salvatioii. — lit. The Bequest of James and John. — IV. The BUnd Man and the Tax-OoUeotor at Jericho.

{CXL. The Renewal of Jesus' Public AcnvrrT m

Jerusalem 250

I. The Triumphal Sntry faito Jenualam. — ^11. The Story and Parable of the Fig Tree.— III. The PubUc Rebuke of the Temple Authorities. — IT. PubUc Discussions with the Leaders of Judaism.— V. The Arraignment of the Scribes and Pharisees.

I CXn. Jesus' Pbefarations fob His Death 205

I. The Prediction of the Temple's Destruction. — IL Jesus' Warnings to His Disciples. — III. The Anoliit- Sng at Bethany. — lY. Judas* Bargain with the Hle^ Priests. — ^y. Jesus' Last Supper with His Disciples.— YI. Jesus* Farewell Words to His DiBCiples.

§ CXLn. Jesus' Arrest and Trial 278

I. The Struggle in Oethsemane. — II. The Arrest of Jesus. — III. His Examination before the Hl^ Priests.— IT. His Trial before Pilate.

fCXLin. Jesus' Death and Burial 288

L The Beoord of Jesus* Crodflxlon. — U. His Last

CONTEKTS

Words.— III. Th0 Place and Maoiiflr of th« Onudflzion. — ^lY. Jesufl^ Burial. — ^Y. The Date of His Dealk. — ^VI. The Meaning of His Death.

I CXLIV. The Lrnna Christ 297

I. The Immediate BfFect of Jesus' Oradflzion upom His Disciples. — ^11. Their Sudden Beooyerj of Faith and Courage. — III. Paul's Testimony. — ^lY. A Cooh parison between the Current CoaoeptioBs of the Besurrection fh>m the Dead and that of Paul. — ^Y. A Comparison of the Different Gospel Beoords of the Resurrection. — ^YI. The Naturalistic Interpretations of the Besurrection Stories. — ^YII. The Supernatural Bzplanations. — ^YIII. The Spiritual Interpretation.

S CXLV. Jesus the Saviottb of Mankind 310

John 3i«-si, 4"* M, ^n, m. si, gith-d, itb-d. ts. Mb-ic, lOi^-u; ll»b-Ma, 12Mb-s«, 13u-ii. t4, », i4*b-'> »•-". », I7n«-u», u-«, I. The Fourth Ooepel's Conception of Jesus as Teacher and Saviour. — ^11. Jesus' Self-Designation. — III. His Interpretation of the Bztent of His Mission. — lY. Why Jesus Is the Universal Saviour of Mankind. — ^Y. The Seasons Why Ghristtanity Is a Conquering World BeUgioo.

APPENDIX I. A Practical Bibucal Kefebxnce Libbabt 323

APPENDIX n. General Questionb and Subjects foe Special Research ^ 325

MAP AND CHART Palbskhe in the TniE of Jesdb

Chart Indicating the Origin and Afprozimate Dates of

THE Gospels to face page 33 sia

•I I

Introduction

THE RECORDS OF THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF

JESUS

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS

L Christianity at Woric in the Worid. Christiamly is not a dead but a living religion. The most convincing and universally valid testimony to the historical reality and divine nature of Jesus' personality and work is the effect of Us life and teachings upon the world to-day. Though often misinterpreted and misrepresented, they are slowly but surely transforming the life, the ideals, and the thought of humanly. Christianity is unquestionably the most potent moral and religious force in human history. The child, even before he reaches self-consciousness, feels the all-pervading influence of Christian civilization. Throughout his life this force surrounds him and gives to him all that is best and richest in hb thought and experience.

In the final analysis, Christianity is a personal attitude toward God and man — a way of living that finds its present inspiration, as well as its historical illustration, in the personality, spirit, and teachings. 6t Jesus. During the intervening centuries it has received additions from many sources; but the only satisfactory explanation of the unique dements in Christianity is the historical Christ. His own standard, "By their fruits you shall know them," applies equally to himself. If we had no written records, we should know his ideals and methods through the mi|^ty inspiration that he has imparted to humanity. By the calm faith in the heavenly Father that sustains his followers in the presoioe of trials and temptations, we know the faith of the Master. By the spirit of love and fidelity that inspires them to perfonn deeds ol hermc self-sacrifioe, we know the spirit of the modest, tireless, courageous ^an of Nazareth. By the eveiMleepemng soddkl consciousness that recognizes the responsibility of the strong to help

THE RECORDS OUTSmE THE GOSPELS

tbe weak, we know the Shepherd of men who devoted not only his fpeipes bat his life to "saving lost sheep." Not in perishable booka^ but in the life and ideals of men Jesus wrote the imperishable and uni- Tcnal^ intelligible record of his work and teachings.

n. The Roman Historians, f^m the point of view of imperial Rome the brief career of Jesus in a distant and despised province was 80 insignificant that to find even an incidental allusion to it in contemporary Roman history is surprising. Four of the Roman writers of the second Christian century, however, refer either to Jesus or. his folkwers. By far the most significant statement is that of Tacitus, the well-known Roman historian, who wrote between 115 and 117 a.d. In his Annals he affirms (XY, 44) that "in order to suppress the rumor [that the Emperor himself had set fire to Rome in 64 a.d.] Nero falsely accused and punished with most acute torture persons who, already hated for their shameful deeds, were commonly called Christians. The founder of that name, Christus, had been put to death by the procurator Pontius Pilate, in the reign of Tiberius; but the deadly superstition, though suppressed for a time, broke out again, not only throughout Judea, where this evil had its origin, but also through the city (Rome), whither all things horrible and vile from all quarters flow and are encouraged. Accordingly, first those were arrested who confessed; then on their information a great multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of incendiarism as of hatred of the human race." The passage reflects the proud, supercilious attitude of Rome toward the Jews. But it also establishes definitely the outstanding facts regarding Jesus and suggests the numbers and character of his followers, who were found in Rome as early as the middle of the first Christian centuiy.

The historian Suetonius, writing about the same period, states that Claudius "e3q;>elled the Jews from Rome because they were constantly raising a tumult at the instigation of Chrestus." The popular error which led Suetonius to believe that the founder of the Christian sect was still in their midst does not invalidate this incidental reference to the presence of Christians at Rome. More exact and informing is the letter which Pliny the younger, while governor of Bithynia, in northern Asia Minor, about 112 a.d., wrote to the Emperor Trajan. In his official communication the cultured Roman official describes in detail the Christians, whom he found in his distant province, and asks for adyiat as to how to deal with them. Witnesses "affirm that the sum of iheir guilt or error was to assemble on a fixed day before daybreak, and jiof responaively a hymn to Christ, as to a god, and tQ biad themselves

I

THE ROMAN HISTORIANS

with an oath not to enter into any wickedness, or to commit thefts, robberies, or adulteries, or to falsify their work, or to repudiate trusts committed to them. When these things were ended, it was their custom to depart, and, on coming together again to take food, men and women together, yet innocently."

The satirist Lucian, writing between 165 and 170 A.D., speaks of th# founder of the Christian religion as "a man who had been fixed to a stake in Palestine, and who was still worshipped for having introduced a new code of morals in life." Speaking of the followers of Jesus, he declares that their master has persuaded them that they are brothers, and they believe that they will live forever. Thus, before the end of the second Christian century the followers of the humble Nazarene had become so prominent in the Roman Empire that the leading historians and writers of the day, although despising them, could not pass them by without at least a brief mention.

III. The Jewish Writers. The references in the Jewish writings which come from the first Christian century are equally significant. In his Antiquities (XX, 9*) Josephus records the condemnation and death of "James, the brother of Jesus, the so-called Messiah (or Christ)." Josephus also apologizes for this act, saying that it was inspired by the Sadducees, whose judgment is always harsh, and that the milder Jews would not have approved it. Origen in three different passages con* firms this reference of Josephus to Jesus (Contra Celsum, I, 47; II, 13; Matt, X, 17). The famous passage in his Antiquities, XVIII, 3', in which Josephus is made to assert that Jesus was a wise man, a worker of miracles, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with joy, that he was, indeed, the Christ, and that, although crucified, he rose again on the third day, is clearly a later Christian addition. Although found in all the extant Greek manuscripts of Josephus, it was unknown to Origen and was first referred to by Eusebius. Hence it was probably inserted between 250 and 300 A..D. Josephus's reference to the work of John the Baptist still further supplements and confirms the biblical narrative. Otherwise the Jewish writers of the period simply establish the fact that Jesus lived; but they furnish no detailed information regarding his life and work. In all their references the later hostility between Jews and Christians is clearly reflected. Jesus is referred to as "that man," "the one hung," "the Nazarene," "the fool," and "Absalom ben Stade" (son of the stake).

IV. Evidence Found in the Catacombs. Very different is the pathetic but effective testimony which comes from the Roman cata-

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS

oombs. Over ten thousand inscriptions have thus far been deciphered. IVadition states that in these underground quarries the bodies of a himdred and seventy-four thousand Christians, many of them martyrs, found their final resting-place. From the days of Hadrian, the phrase "In Christ" became a constant recurring element in burial inscriptions. Even more significant are the i^ymbolic pictures which decorate the walls of the catacombs. Over a hundred and thirty-two themes are thus treated. As a result of the careful work of the German scholar Wilpert (published in his Corpus), these are now dated vkh reasonable certainty. Twenty of these pictives come from the first Christian century and are found in the famous room of Domitilla of the Flavian family. The influence of GrsBco-Roman art was still strong. Three symbolic pictures, however, have biblical themes: (1) Daniel among the lions, symbolizing God's protection of the faithful in danger. (2) Noah, also i^rmbolizing God's protection of his people. (3) The Good Shepherd, represented by Cupid, the Roman god of love, as a shepherd. In the paintings of the second century a great variety of themes are introduced, such as the incarnation, represented by the adoration of the wise men; the annunciation; and the divine nature of Christ, illustrated by the healing of the paralytic and the woman with the issue of blood. Christ's woric as Saviour is illustrated by many different ^rmbob, as, for example, the sacrifice of Isaac, the Good Shepherd, Noah, and Daniel among the lions, the last judgmoit, the resurrection, and the life of the blessed in paradise. Even such sacramental themes as baptism and the eucharist are represented by Moses striking the rode, the breaking of bread, the multiplication of loaves, and other symbolic scenes. These pictures reflect, more clearly than any contemporaiy literature, the popular religious thought of the early Christians. Th^ strongly confirm the main facts of the gospel story and illustrate the beliefs of the early church. Above all, the heroism and devotion whidi inspired them testily to the invincible power of the spirit and teachings of Jesus.

V. The Uncanonical Qospels. During the first three centuries many accounts of Jesus' life and teachings were written, but were so legendary and of so little value that they were not included in the canon, that is, the final authoritative edition of the New Testament; but were known as uncanonical gospels. More than twenty-five such gospels are referred to either by title or in quotations preserved by the early Christian writers. Many of these writings bear the names of Jesus* lUflcipIes, as, for example, the Gospel of Andrew, the Gospel of Ba^

THE UNCANONICAL GOSPELS

tholomew, and the Gospel of the Twelve. Of these many attempts to record the life and teachings of Jesus, the majority were dearly later than the canonical gospels, and possess little intrinsic value. Three uncanonical gospels, however, are of especial interest. The first is the Gospel of the Hebrews. It was probably first written in Syriac, not earlier than the second century. Among the early Christians of Palestine it racked in authority with the Fourth Gospel. It was frequently quoted by the early Church Fathers, who were the authoritative interpreters of the bdiefs of the Christians during the second and third centuries. About twenty-five of these quotations survive. Among other things they tell of how Jesus' mother and brothers urged him to go with them and be baptized by John. They also present a variant account of Jesus' baptism, of his temptation, and of the story of the rich young man. The value of this lost Gospel of the Hebrews is very differently estimated by scholars. Its point of view is in many ways similar to that of Luke. The apologetic aim is also prominent. It may possibly have preserved certain fugitive facts; but recent discoveries show that it is inferior in almost every respect to the canonical gospels, and especially to the Gospel of Matthew, upon which it is evidently based.

In 1886 there was discovered in upper Egypt a fragment of the Gospel of Peter, which comes from the second Christian century. This fragment tells of the trial, crucifixion, and death of Jesus. It also contains two resurrection stories. Its reference to Jesus as preaching to those in the underworld is closely parallel to the corresponding passage in I Peter 3". The book contains little supplemental historical data, but is simply a fanciful version of the earlier gospel history. It illustrates, however, the development o( Christian tibought during the second century, and marks the transition from the canonical to the distorted apocryphal gospels. The Gospel of the Egyptians, which is known only through a few unimportant quotations, doubtless possessed the same general characteristics as the Gospel of Peter. The earliest references to it come from about 200 a.d. Apparently during the third and fourth centuries it enjoyed a certain authority among the Christians of Egypt.

yi. The Recently Discovered Sayings of Jesus. It is not unprobable that many of the sayings of Jesus which have recently been discovered in Egypt are derived from the Gospel of the Egyptians* In thought and form they are closely related to the Gospel of John, upon whidi they appear to be based. It is doubtful whether any of them

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS

may be dated earlier than the second century. While th^ surges) the fascinating possibility that almost contemporary records of the life and teachings of Jesus may yet be discovered, those thus far unearthed add little to our knowledge of his original utterances. One or two may contain the actual words of Jesus, as, for example: "Jesus saith, ' Where^ ever they are . . . and there is one . . . alone, I am with him. Raisa the stone and there thou shalt find me; cleave the wood and there am 1.'" The following utterance: "Jesus saith, 'Let not him who seeki . • • cease until he finds, and when he finds, he shall be astonished, and astonished, he shall reach the kingdom, and having reached the kingdom, he shall rest,'" probably reflects an original saying It is preserved by the Church Fathers in the briefer form: "He who wonders shall reign, and who reigns shall rest." Several of these sayings are colored by that ascetic and ritualistic spirit which is the exact opposite of that which Jesus taught and did: "Jesus saith, 'Except you fast to the world, you shall in no wise find the kingdom of God; and except you keep the Sabbath, you shall not see the Father.' " Most of these utterances seem but the reverberating echoes of the sayings which the canonical gospels present in their more nearly original form.

VII. The Writings of the Church Fathers. It is natural to expect that in the voluminous writings of the learned and devoted Church Fathers many facts and teachings not preserved in the New Testament would be found. This expectation, however, is unfulfilled, and the reason is because the data were no longer available. The possession of written gospels evidently led the Christians of the second and third generations to relax their zeal in preserving ciurent oral traditions. Justin Martyr, the successor of the apostles, adds a little information regarding Jesus, a^ for example, the statement that in his home in Nazareth he made yokes and ploughs; yet it is not clear whether even in this case the basis was not a conjecture drawn from Jesus' command, "Take up my yoke, "rather than the memory of an actual fact. Of the sayings of Jesus reported by the Church Fathers, practi^ cally all, in form and content, resemble the teachings found in the gospels. The most significant are: "Be approved money-changers; disapproving some things, but holding fast that which is good." "Never rejoice except when you have looked upon your brother in love." "They who wish to behold me and lay hold on my kingdom must receive me by affliction."

VIIL The Apocryphal Gospels. Far more barren than the writings of the Church Fathers are the so-called apocryphal gospels. These

THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS

fanciful accounts of supposed inddents in the life of Jesus, like the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, were written too late to be included among the New Testament writings. They deal for the most part with the birth and infancy of Jesus, and supply by the aid of pious imagination the answers to the popular questions which were raised with increasing insistency by the later church. Two of them, the Proto-Evangelium of James and the Arabic Gospel of the Infancy, may •ome from the latter half of the second Christian century. The re* mainder cannot be dated earlier than the third, fourth, and fifth centuries. Most of them have survived and are highly esteemed in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches. They not only reiterate in greater detail the stories found in the opening chapters of Matthew and Luke, but state that the Virgin Mary was also immaculately conceived and guarded from all that might defile. The Grospel of Tbomas con* tains grotesque and almost blasphemous stories regarding Jesus' boyhood, attributing to him miracles that are purposeless and unethical. The titles suggest the contents of the following gospels: Concerning the Birth of Mary, History of Joseph the Carpenter, and the Passing of Mary. The Acts of Pilate contains a popular tradition regarding the trial of Jesus and makes the Roman procurator bear testimony to the innocence and divine character of the great Teacher. These gospels have practically no historical value, but they reveal the tendencies later at work in the church, and the profound impression that Jesus' personality and work made upon the world.