A Hand-Book to Coffee Planting in Southern India

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Preface

In launching this work on Coffee cultivation before the Public, it will be necessary to explain what claims I have to consideration on this subject, and from what sources I have obtained my information, since planters will no doubt be disposed to enquire what experience | can have had in coffee planting: As I am merely an amateur planter, my experiments extend over a few plants only which I have for some years carefully cultivated, and watched their habits and constitution, but my observation extends over some millions of plants, not only in the so-called planting localities, some-of which I have visited, but in various parts of India J have observed the habits of the coffee plant, in amateur experiments similar to rny own.

Horticulture or Agriculture is a practical and not a theoretical science, and theory although very well in its place is worthless in itself, when not borne out by practice and experience. Practice without theory is but hap-hazard work, but when theory is tested by practical experience and based on science, we cannot go wrong, for we know and understand the subject in all its bearings, and can practically carry out the teaching of theory and the facts of science, in our Horticultural and Agricultural operations.

The cultivation of coffee in this country is now attracting much attention, and being carried out on an extended scale, to meet the demand which is constantly increasing.

fe A HAND-BOOK TO COFFEE PLANTING IN SOUTHERN INDIA

We hope that in the absence of a better, this book will be a guide to those entering into coffee speculations, and may prevent the loss and misdirection of labour consequent on capital imprudently laid out. There are numerous localities, soils, hill sides and plateau, still lying waste or overgrown with jungle, which are admirably suited for coffee, and which with a moderate capital judiciously laid out, might be converted into smiling plantations giving handsome returns. The chapter on the " Physiological consideration of the coffee plant," might be made applicable to almost any plant. The object of considering the subject here and confining the observations entirely to coffee, was with a view of impressing the subject on the mind of the planter, and to give him an interest in the study of the plant itself. Having always been fond of Horticulture and Agriculture, for the last 6 years I have made it a special study, during my leisure moments, and the knowledge thus acquired I have fully applied to the subject under review, and have not only given the results of my own observations and experiments, but have taken advantage of every work I could procure, so as to bring together as far as possible, all that has been written on the subject.

Whilst in the midst of my M. S., I was by the kindness of the Honorable J. B. Norton favored with the perusal of Laborie’s and another pamphlet, a reprint from the " Ceylon Observer," containing " Letters on Pruning" by V. and the manuring of coffee estates by C- Wall, Esq., and as I have not acknowledged these in the body of the work, I have much pleasure in alluding to them here.

I am in an especial manner indebted for much valuable information to my friend H. G. Morison, Esq., who has been familiar with coffee planting from his boyhood; for from the time he landed in this country after completing his education, he hag been more or less engaged as a planter and merchant.

Mr. Morison is not only a planter, but a successful one. and from his familiarity with most of the planting localities

These pamphlets have since been reprinted by Mr. Higginbotham, Bookseller and Stationer, Madras.

in Southern India, lie was in a position to afford me valuable assistance, and readily placed the information lie possessed at my disposal.

My obligations are also due to B. A. Daly, Esq., who has been a coffee planter on the Shervaroy Hills for the last 22 years, for much information. I am greatly indebted to W. H. Staines, Esq. , of Coonoor, for specimens of Insects, and for having placed at my disposal some valuable " memoranda" bearing on the subject of coffee.

I have also to thank Messrs. Fischer and Co., of Salem, and General Ottley, for various hints on the subject of coffee cultivation, &c.

To my friend Mr. G. Norton, the Chemist and Druggist, I am greatly indebted for having so kindly and readily undertaken at my request to analyse not only the ash of the plant, but the soil also.

Tam aware that this work falls short of what it might be, but as my sole object has been to assist those engaged in a subject which seems to have become a mania of late,

I ask the indulgence of the reader for any shortcomings that may be found in the body of the work.

JOHN SHORTT.

SECTION 2 Page

Manure Pit VI Pickle No. 1’. 74 Pickle No. 2 74 Remarks ". 75 CHAPTER VI.

Cost of Planting, &c 78 CHAPTER VII.

Diseases to which the Coffee plant is subject, and Animals destructive to it 94 CHAPTER VIII.

The Medicinal, Chemical, and Physiological properties of Coffee... 107 Physiological effects of Coffee "... Il1 Volatile Oil , Ill Preparation of the Bean , 114 CHAPTER IX.

The Collection of the Produce and the preparation of it for the Market.: 117 Pulping Machines 120

The Store House 124

CHAPTER X.

Various resources of a Plantation , 126

For Green Tea 133

Second for Black Tea 134

CHAPTER XI.

Aroma 139

CHAPTER XII.

Stock Yard: 142

CHAPTER XII.

Statistics of Coffee 151

Coffee 156

Shervaroy Hills 165

Mysore 166

Cborg , 171

The produce of an Acre, or individual Plant 175

Coffee Wood 176

CHAPTER XIV.

Hints to planters on the preservation of their health, and that of

their Establishment , 178

CHAPTER xX.

Coffee. — The Coffea Arabica belongs to the natural order Rubiacese, or Cinchonacese, the Pentandria Monogynia of Linnaeus ; which contains many species of " berry bearing tropical shrubs."

" The natural order Cinchonacese consists of trees, shrubs, or herbs with simple opposite leaves ; interpetiolar, glandular stipules; cymose inflorescence. Calyx adherent, entire or toothed ; Corolla regular, stamens attached to the Corolla. Ovary 2 celled, style 1. Fruit inferior separating into cocci, or indehiscent and dry or succulent, seeds definite and erect, or ascending, or indefinite and attached to a central placenta embryo small in horny albumen."

" The Coffea Arabica, from its being the principal producer of coffee, is the chief and most useful, but besides this, other species are cultivated in other parts of the world, on account of their commercial value ; all of which although now regarded as separate species, owe their origin to the Coffea Ara-’ bica, which was first introduced into Arabia about the commencement of the 15th century, from Enarea, and Caf- fa, in Southern Abyssinia, to which countries it is inde- genous/’f

The coffee bush is a pretty, evergreen shrub, varying from 15 to 20 feet in height. The flowers are white, with a slight rosy tint; and emit a strong jasmine odour. The fruit is a succulent berry, about the size of a cherry, andcontains two seeds which are hard and horny, and are now universally known as coffee beans. We have so little acquaintance with the fruit of the coffee previous to its preparation for the market, that comparatively little is known of it beyond the appearance it then presents, and the delicious beverage it yields, which is too well known to require detailed notice here; although little more than two centuries have elapsed since its first introduction as an article of commerce, and the hospitable cup of the Arab first spread its charms into

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English homes. It is said that a Molah named Chadely was the first Arab who used coffee, which he drank during his nightly devotions to keep him awake. His disciples followed his example ; its stimulating properties soon became known among pilgrims, who in their peregrinations introduced it into Medina, Mecca, and finally throughout Mahomedan countries.

Balfour’s Botany, page 829.

f Beverages we Infuse, —- Blackwood’s Magazine, No. 459.

According to all authentic accounts, coffee was first introduced into Europe at Venice in 1615, reached Marseilles in 1654, and was taken direct to Paris from the East by Solyman Aga in 1667- The first Cafd was opened in Paris in 1669, by an Armenian named Paskal, who not succeeding there removed to London, where he opened a coffee-house in George Yard, Lombard-street, which was such a success, that in a twelve month there were as many coffee-houses in London as in Cairo.

Another version is, that in 1652 the first coffee-house was opened in London by a Greek named Pasqua. 2

European nations have adopted the use of this mild stimulant to such an extent, that its consumption far exceeds that of tea, and in proportion as the demand has increased so efforts have been made to extend its cultivation to different places in the torrid zone, with what success we shallpresently see. Arabia long preserved a monopoly in coffee, and but for the exertions of the Dutch and British, we should have been forced to rest content with the scanty supplies afforded by the little hills of Mocha. It is related that in the midde of the 15th century, the Kadi of Aden, Abd el Kadir, Mahomed el Aza ri’el Jeziri el Hanbali, having occasion to visit Abyssinia, found coffee in general use there, and on his return introduced the plant into Aden, from whence it is supposed to have extended into Mecca, Egypt, and eventually into Europe. An Arab named Sheikh Ali Shaduli Ibn Omar introduced it into Mecca. It was introduced into Ceylon by the Arabs, prior to the invasion of that island by the Portuguese. The Dutch introduced the coffee plant into Batavia in 1690, and at the same time commenced its cultivation in Ceylon. On the cession of this territory by the Dutch, its culture was continued by the Cinghalese, and during the British occupation of Ceylon, the Mahomedan inhabitants bartered its produce at Galle and Colombo. The introduction of the coffee plant in the West Indies, is traceable to a single tree sent as a present to Louis 14th of France, by the Magistrate of Amsterdam. Cuttings from this tree were sent to Martinique, where it soon became established, and was the means of extending coffee cultivation all over the West Indian islands.

Blackwood’s Magazine. No. 45J

The introduction of coffee into the East and West Indies, Java, and Ceylon, has proved of great benefit to the public.

The credit of having established the first upland plantation in Ceylon in 1825, is due to Sir Edward Barnes, f who thus gave that impetus to coffee cultivation which has caused it to be produced in such large quantities, that the stock on the 30th June 1862 in the United Kingdom, andprincipal Continental ports, may be estimated at nearly 60,000 tons.

Balfour’s Cyclopaedia of India, 2nd Supplement, page 147. t Balfour’s Cyclopaedia do. do. do. page 147.

United Kingdom 9,550

HoUand 27,750

Antwerp 3,400

Hamburg 9,500

Havre 5,900

Trieste 3,470

I shall now endeavour to describe the modes of cultivation of the plant, confining my remarks more especially to cultivation of coffee in India. To consider the subject fully and in all its bearings, it is necessary to divide it into the following parts.

1. History, climate, soil, coolies, felling, roads, nurseries, seeds, marking off plantation, pitting or holing, transplanting, weeding, vacancies, trenching, terracing, catch drains, &c.

. Pruning, based on the Physiology of the plant.

. Physiological considerations of the plant.

. Chemical analysis of the ash of the plant and soil, &c., &c.

. Manure based on the constitution of the plant.

. Cost of planting, with particulars of the chief localities given.

. Diseases, insects, and animals destructive to the plant described.

. The Medicinal, Chemical, and Physiological properties of coffee considered.

9. The collection of the produce and preparation of it for the market.

10. Various resources of a plantation. Coffee leaf tea, its preparation, Chemical Nutritive and Physiological properties. Manufacture of spirits from the pulp. Infusion of the pulp, husk, &c., &c. ‘

- 11. Aroma of the coffee bean.

12. Statistics of coffee.

1 3. Stock yard.

14. Hints to Planters on the preservation of their health, and that of their Establishment.

Before discussing these subjects, it will be as well to review the cultivation of coffee in its native clime, and in its natural state. Now we know as a fact, that the Arab does not generally sow his seed in order, or establish nurseries, or otherwise attend to the welfare of the plant, until it attains maturity. The seed is simply scattered, and the plant germinates fostered only by the hand of nature and watered by the dews of heaven, yet it grows luxuriantly, frequently attaining from 15 to 20 feet in height, and producing largely. When the fruit is ripe for gathering, camel hair mats are spread beneath the trees and the ripe berries shaken off. The fruit is collected and dried in the sun in the berry, and when perfectly dry, the husk or dried skin, and membrane are separated from the fruit, by pounding in wooden or stone mortars. In this manner is prepared the Mocha long berry, and the deformed and rounded bean known as the " pea berry,” which command the market, and place it out of the power of the most cultivated and carefully prepared coffee to vie with them.

"In the interior of Arabia there are hill villages maintained solely by the produce of their coffee, which is grown on Terraces, and planted so densely that the rays of the sun can hardly penetrate the groves. Although for the most part coffee in Arabia is not irrigated, but made dependant on the rains, in these parts some of the plantations are

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SECTION 2 7 systematically watered by means of large reservoirs formed on the heights, in which spring as well as rain water is collected, and distributed over the terraces ; and the coffee thus watered produces a second crop in the year, but the fruit only ripens well during the first crop, whilst that ofthe second is cast away in an immature state, and is consequently always inferior to the first."

" Coffsea," Niebuhr says, " was brought from Abyssinia to Yemen by the Arabs, from a country similar to their own plains and mountains. By that people it has for ages been cultivated in the hilly range of Jalab, watered by frequent rains and abounding in wells and tanks. Here the plants are grown in grounds that are continually irrigated, in soil from | to 1J feet deep. The climate is rainy from June to September. Fruit begins to ripen in February (terraced and irrigated.) Little more is known, unless we add temperature.

March —7 A. M. .69 to 76 Fahr.

Richness of soil in the West Indies is said by some to cause inferiority of quality, and to the supposed dry ness of Yemen has been ascribed the excellence of Mocha coffee, but it has been shown that the Arabs abundantly irrigate. The point to be attended to is, to select a climate where the heat of tropical plains is counteracted by elevation, where during the dry season water can be commanded, and especially where the air is clear and cloudless and Irrigation abundant, "f

" Coffee in Arabia is irrigated with care, the water, being turned off as the fruit ripens ; lest it be rendered too succulent."+

The European planter, on the other hand, selects a forest situated at a medium altitude of about 3 or 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and having cleared his land and pitted the ground generally transplants seedlings, which have beennursed with care for a season or two, and placing them from five to six, and sometimes seven feet apart, awaits with anxiety the appearance of the first blossoms.

" Travels of Roland," translated from the French by Cecil Hartley, A. M., 1853.

t Penny Cyclopsedia, Vol. vii. page 321.

I Bingley’s Useful Knowledge, Vol. 2, Page 21.

Little further is done on the plantation at this early stage, beyond keeping it free from weeds, and this even is not done by all. During the second year trenching is practised, and if circumstances prove favorable, the plants grow healthy, and sufficient care be given them, a fair crop is generally produced in the third year, which with ordinary care ought to yield from 4 to 5 cwt. per acre.

The cares and anxieties of the planter now commence ; he watches with anxious solicitude the timely rain for the forming of blossoms, by which his prospects for the ensuing season are determined. Light showers in May generally help to push forward the blossoms, and should these not be succeeded by a drought but by other timely showers, the plants are invigorated and the fear of failure removed. About the time that the blossoms are forming on the coffee bushes, the S. W. monsoon generally sets in, followed by heavy showers of rain, which continue more or less up to the end of October, and in some distrcts this is followed by the N. E. monsoon, which frequently continues up to January.

About the end of November, the planter makes preparations for trimming up the plantation. Extra labourers are now employed, and weeding is carried on. In a well organised and regular plantation, this is a trifling operation, but where the place has been neglected and allowed to run wild, it becomes formidable.

The Pulping house and drying grounds are now looked after, and set iu order for the forthcoming harvest.

December brings with it the ripe coffee berries, sometimes a little earlier or later. Labourers are daily sent out to gather the ripe fruits, which are kept overnight, and pulped the next morning. The pulper is a simple roller covered with copper or zinc sheeting. A piece of wood is screwed on parallel to the cylinder, with just sufficient space left between the two to admit of the coffee bean deprived of its pulpy covering, passing through without being crushed. The berries are placed in troughs over the cylinder, which is made to revolve, and as the fruit passes through, the pulp is freed and thrown on one side, whilst the coffee bean falls on the other, and is frequently conducted on to a cistern filled with clean water, and freely agitated to deprive the seeds of their mucous covering, in which they remain some 12 or 18 hours, each planter being guided by his own views on the subject. When the seeds are taken out of the cisterns, they are placed either on paved drying grounds, or on platforms covered with bamboo matting, where they are allowed to dry, for three or four days, and are then called parchment coffee.

The next process consists of freeing the seeds of their parchment or membranous covering, which is rudely accomplished by pounding the seeds in a mortar, or on the ground. To the latter method many object, as it discolours and imparts an,earthy flavour to the coffee.

A more simple and widely adopted plan for freeing the seeds of their parchment, is by means of what is known as the " trough ;" it consists of a circular groove lined with wood or stone, into which a large wooden or stone wheel is fitted, and worked by human or animal power, the wheel moving round and round in the groove, after the fashion of a mill. The groove is filled with the parchment coffee, which is freed of its covering by the pressure and rotatory motion of the wheel.

When the bean is taken out it is winnowed, by throwing up the seeds against the wind, and the coffee is finally picked clean of foreign bodies, and stored. Another more complete machine is used on a few estates for pulping coffee, and is known by the name of " Meacock’s Patent." Thismachine consists of two heavy pieces of wood or metal, placed together like grinding stones, their faces spiked closely with iron wire. To this mill a rapid rotatory motion is given, by a wheel moved by cattle in a circle. Whilst the parchment coffee is placed in a feeding trough, and enters the mill in the required quantity, the cleansed bean falls through the apparatus into a receiving box, where fans are placed which effectually winnow the berries, which then pass through a wire sieve placed on an inclined plane. The object of the sieve is to separate the beans of unequal size from the large ones, as it has been found that in roasting coffee the smaller beans are burned or charred, ere the larger ones are half roasted.

I have here briefly reviewed the system of cultivation and preparation of coffee, as practised in Arabia and East India. I believe the same system is carried out in all

SECTION 2 9 parts of the world, perhaps in some instances a little modified, to suit peculiarities of climate, soil, or other local circumstances.

The Arabian coffee still maintains its superiority, depending no doubt on some peculiarity of soil, and the climate being congenial to the growth of the plant, whereas in other climates the cultivation is in a measure artificial, and the climate and soil tend much to modify the peculiar aroma of the berries. The qualities and aroma are not only dependant on the ripeness of the berries, but the particular mode of curing the bean, and the effects of climate and soil affect its commercial value.

The following is a list of valuation for coffee in the London market, on the Ist September 1862.

1 Mocha 100 to 112s. per cwt.

2 Jamaica 87 to 112s. per cwt.

3 Cuba, 81 to 92s.

4 Costa Rica 80 to 90

5 Ceylon 70 to 100 6 Mungerabad 92/6 to 99

7 Wynad 85 to 92

8 Lackady.

9 Bahia 52 to 65

10 Native Ceylon 70/6 to 71

11 Rio 77 — bought in.

12 Shervaroy 80 to 90

13 Malabar and Mysore.... 70 to 100

14 JBatavia 67 to 87

15 Brazil 60 to 85

16 Singapore and Sumatra. 56 to 72s. per cvrt.

From the foregoing it appears, that the wide differences we perceive in coffee produced in various parts of the world, are not to be ascribed to any one reason in particular, but that, climate, soil, elevation, culture, &c., all combine in determining its commercial value.

It may be useful therefore to examine each subject separately, commencing with the climate and soil, and taking up in order the different agricultural operations necessary to the successful cultivation of the plant, and the collection and preparation of the produce.

Climate and Soil. — The coffee plant requires a damp or moist climate. It luxuriates in places where torrents of rain descend, such as the slopes of hills and vallies ; nothing is so fatal to this plant as a drought. Both experience and science teach us that with the necessary amount of moisture, all vegetation requires a sufficient quantity of heat, to maintain it in health and to favour the ripening of the fruit, and it has been repeatedly ascertained by experiment, that the coffee plant does not thrive in cold climates ; it has even failed on the coldest part of the Neilgherry range of hills, near Mungerabad, where although it grows luxuriantly, the fruit is cast away in an immature state, and never arrives at maturity, from the want of sufficient warmth;

Places subject to dense fogs continually covering the hills, are equally objectionable, although a moderate quantity is desirable, as mists and heavy dews supply moisture, and tend to refresh and invigorate the plants during the hot weather. In the selection of a locality, therefore, too much attention cannot be paid to each of these points; for we frequently see instances in which planters take up land and prepare it, without previous examination of its position and suitability, and discover when too late, that some great defect exists in the climate, that completely unsuits it for the cultivation of coffee.

The next requisite for the successful growth of coffee, is the soil. This should be rich, abounding with moisture, and containing much humus or vegetable mould, consequently we find the plant thrives best on either red or black clay, containing combinations or preparations of iron, and covered over with humus formed by the decay of vegetable matter produced by dense forests. When these points are overlooked, the results are soon seen in the rising plantation.

The planter, perhaps, instead of choosing forest land, has taken up a poor, grassy, or stony situation, and however much water he may have access to, his plants are stunted and soon become yellow, unless he resorts to heavy manuring at a very early stage, which materially increases the expense of the concern.

In hard or rocky soils, the pits require to be deeply excavated, to permit of the tap roots of the plant striking perpendicularly down, and even when every precaution is taken, it will be found that estates opened out on poor soils will always prove more expensive than those on forest land, and are not so lasting.

The berry produced on rich ferruginous clay, is found to contain more aroma and the bean is heavier, when compared with those of other localities. This fact is so well known tocoffee brokers generally in London, that a new importation is frequently weighed after being roasted. ‘

If we take a view of the W. Ghauts on which are embraced some of the finest coffee growing districts, we find the Neilgherries, Wynad, Mysore, Coorg, Mungerabad, and the Shervaroys, all contain in a greater or lesser degree, the requisite properties, and when these are wanting to any extent, high and expensive cultivation is necessary to remedy such defects.

The productions of the two largest coffee districts of Java and Ceylon, which regulate the market, are grown, we find, on cleared forest land, and the soil approaches in elevation to that of India.

This is a consideration that should on no account be overlooked. The pine of the Himalayas will not thrive in lower latitudes, nor does the Teak of the Forest succeed on snow clad hills, and in like manner coffee requires for its proper growth, and maturation, an elevated soil, and when we depart from its natural range, the plant degenerates.

From 3 to 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and at a proportionate distance from the influence of sea breeze, seems to be the situation in which coffee thrives best.

Above or below this height, the tree may thrive, but it produces fruit scantily, and is subject to injury from extremes of heat or cold.

In the low countries there is not sufficient moisture in the soil, and when shaded and irrigated, it produces a coarse and uneven bean, devoid of the peculiar aroma essential to good coffee.

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The improvement that has of late years taken place in every branch of agriculture and horticulture, and the advantages derived from it, are so well known, that we can in no way be surprised at its application to coffee growing.

A coffee plantation should be attended to as an horticultural undertaking, for each individual plant requires looking after, and careful nursing; and I feel assured that if capitalists who eater on this speculation would only study the subject scientifically, and practice the rules of horticulture in the undertaking, the results of their operations would prove much more successful than they do at present.

The planter must not only be possessed of capital, but requires nice judgement and practical skill, combined with a little common sense, to carry out the work before him, but these are not all. He must be in the enjoyment of robust health, to be able to withstand the deadly effects of a damp atmosphere, for in all probability he will have to spend his time surrounded by the direst malaria, out in the open air from morning till night, supervising the work in course of operation on the estate ; for where this is not done, it is sure to be inefficiently carried out.

Coolies — In the employment of coolies, powerful and healthy men, if possible from among the hill tribes, should be selected, if any be procurable in the vicinity, as they are the most expert in the use of the axe, &c., particularly; but they require close and careful supervision. There should be a maistry to every gang of 20 coolies ; the maistries being held responsible to the superintendant for the work done by the gangs under their charge. On all estates task work should be introduced, in preference to any other system, so that each individual executes a fair proportion.

Where coolies have to be procured from a distance, too much care cannot be bestowed on their selection, subsequent housing, tendency to fever, &c. This disease should thus be checked at the outset, in doing which the planter will not only be serving his own interests, but those of humanity also.

Coolies in strange places are erratic and unsettled in

their habits, and consequently cannot be depended on for continuous labour; but will in such cases require kind treatment and persuasion, to keep them at work. Experienced labourers will perform twice the work of inexperienced ones, and stand the climate better ; they only require careful management.

In establishing a coffee plantation, the first thing to be considered is the selection of the locality, bearing in mind the necessary conditions of the soil and the requisites of Climate ; that is, the various conditions of temperature, atmospheric pressure, humdity, rain fall, &c. These points having been considered, the planter sets to work by felling or clearing the forest; which should be commenced early in the year, as it is the most expensive part of the undertaking.