Irrigation and drainage : principles and practice of their cultural phases

Preface

Most works on irrigatiou have been written from the legal or sociological standpoint, or from that of the engineer, rather than from the cultural phases of the subject. The effort is made here to present in a broad yet specific way the fundamental principles which underlie the methods of culture by irrigation and drainage. Distinctively engineering principles and problems, as such, have been avoided, and so have those of plant husbandry. The aim has been to deal with those relations of water to soils and to plants which must be grasped in order to permit a rational practice of applying, removing or conserving soil moisture in crop production. The immediately practical i)roblems, from the farmer's, fruit-grower's and gardener's standpoints, with the principles which underlie them, are presented in as concrete and concise a manner as appears needful to build up a rational practice of irrigation culture and farm drainage ; and the effort has been to broaden the conceptions of general soil

21240 vi Preface

management, even when neither irrigation nor drainage is practiced.

Great pains has been taken to personally inspect the irrigation practices of both humid and arid climates in this country and in Europe, to gain a broader view of essential details, and to secure suitable illustrations, which are presented largely as photo -engravings, in the hope of getting closer to the spirit of the subject.

Free use has been made of all available literature on the subject, and credit is given throughout the body of the text to various writers and

works.

F. H. KING.

University of Wisconsin, March, 1899.

Contents

INTRODUCTION (pages 1-65) General Remarks on the Importance of Water

Definition of irrigation and drainage — Importance of water in crop production — Plants adapted to intermittent watering — Variation in the capacity of soils for water — Adaptation of plants to soils of different water capacity — Variations in soils and in rainfall may make irrigation or drainage needful — Better aeration and deeper root feeding in arid soils — Explanations not entirely satisfactory 1-9

The Advantages of Abundant Supply of Soil Moisture. — Large volumes of water generally needed — Part played by water in crop production — Relation to plant life — Relation to soil microbes — Rains and irrigation may start formation of nitrates by diluting soil moisture — Relation of drainage to development of nitrates and soil fertility — Soil water dissolves ash ingredients of plant -food — Water causes oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen to enter the soil 9-15

CHAPTER I The Extent and Geographic Range of Irrigation (pages 66-90)

The Antiquity of Irrigation.— In Egypt — In Assyria — By the Phoenicians — Early Grecian and Roman — In China

— In Mexico and Peru 66-72

Extent of Irrigation.— In the Po valley — In Sicily — In Spain — In France — In Switzerland — In Belgium — In Denmark — In Austria-Hungaria — In Bavaria — In England— In India — In Ceylon — In Australia -In other

Cont€7its ix

PAGKS

parts of Asia — In Algeria — In Egypt — In Cape Colony — In Madagascar — In the Hawaiian Islands — In Java — In South America — In the Argentine Republic — In Western United States — Amount of land irrigated 72-89

The Climatic Conditions Under ivltich Irrigation Has Been Practiced. — Amount of rainfall where irrigation has been practiced — Distribution of rain with reference to the growing season 89, 90

Chapter II

The Conditions which Make Irrigation Imperative, Desirable, or Unnecessary (pages 91-116)

Objects of Irrigation. — To establish right moisture relations — To increase fertility — To change texture of soil — To build up low areas — For sewage disposal 91-94 '

The Least Amount of Water tohich Can Produce a Paying Crop. — Importance of the subject — Amount of water needed for wheat — Slow rate of evaporation from dry soil — Average yield of wheat as related to rainfall — Dry farming 95-101

Like Amounts of Eainfall not EqualJii Productive. — Differences in yield and in rainfall — Causes of differences . . 101-106

Frequency and Length of Periods of Drought — Abundant watering at short intervals needful— Type of rain distribution-Ineffective rains — Length of rainfall periods in Wisconsin — Yield of crops compared with rainfall — Length of too long periods of no rain — Yields due to rainfall and to irrigation compared 106-110

Conditions which Modify the Effectivetiess of RainfaU. — In- -fluence of soil texture — Amount of moisture in soil when growth is checked — Loss of water by percolation — Rapid percolation chief cause of poor yields — Supplementary irrigation helpful on light lands— Topographic conditions influencing effectiveness — Sub-irrigation may supplement rainfall 110-116

X Contents

Chapter III

The Extent to which Tillage May Take the Place OF Irrigation (pages 117-170)

TJie Insufficiency of Water to Irrigate all Cultivated Lands. — Discharge of the Mississippi river — Mean annual run-off for the United States — Proportion of cultivated fields which might l>e irrigated 117-120

Most loliich may he Hoped for Tillage in the Use of Water. — Do soils take moisture from air to helpful extent ? — Tillage does not diminish transpiration in plants, and cannot dispense with water 120, 121

Tlie Amount of Bain Needed to Produce Maximum Crops in Humid and Sui -humid Ecgions. — Acre -inches required for a pound of dry matter — The amount of available rainfall in the United States — Effective rainfall of 13 states — Theoretical yields which may be expected 121-125

The Distribution of Bain in Time Unfavorable to Maximum Yields. — Mean yields of bai'ley, oats and maize in 18 states — Small mean yields, due to unfavorable distribution of rain 125-127

Methods of Tillage to Conserve Moisture often Ineffective. — Cultivation inapplicable — Meadows and pastures — Mean yield of hay in 13 states — Relation of yield of hay to eifective rainfall — Tillage methods only partly applicable to small grains 127, 128

Tillage to Save Moisture is Chiefly Effective in Saving Winter and Early Spring Bains. — Late rains largely absorbed by the surface three inches — Roots develop close to the surface in late summer 128,129

Midsummer and Early Fall Crops Difficult to Eaise without Irrigation. — Summer rains less effective— Yields of second crop clover — A crop of barley and hay the same season 129-131

Contents xi

Fall Plowing to Conserve Moisture. — How most effective — Amount of moisture saved — Most important in sub-humid climates — Applicable to orchards and small fruits 131-133

SubsoiUng to Conserve Moisture. — Magnitude of the effects

—Duration of the effects 133-138

Explanation of Effects of SubsoiUng. — Increases water capacity of soil stirred — Decreases the capillary conducting power — Allows the water to enter soil more deeply — Larger per cent of water available to crops 139-142

Earth Mulches. — Conditions modifying effectiveness — Loses in effectiveness with age — Other mulches — Too close pasturing wasteful — Value of surface dressings of manure—Harrowing and rolling small grains after they are up 142-147

Early Tillage to Save Moisture. — Amount saved — Most effective tools — Early stirring rather than early planting 147-151

Danger of Ploicing Under Green Manures. — Catch crops in

humid and sub-humid climates 151-153

Summer Fallowing in Relation to Soil Moisture 153,154

Influence of Summer Fallowing on Soil Moisture and on

Plant-food 154-157

Old Systems of Intertillage. — Jethro Tull's method — Hunter's modification — The Lois-Weedon system — Planting and tillage to utilize the whole rainfall — Distance roots of corn and potatoes spread laterally — Distribution of moisture in potato field — Lateral feeding of oats — Horse-hoeing grain a form of summer fallowing 157-163

Frequency of Tillage to Conserve Soil Moisture. — Should often take place at the earliest possible moment — Danger from late tillage 164,165 xii Contents

Jlie Proper Depth of Surface Tillage and Eklged and Flat Cultivation. — Depth of early tillage — Deep ridges objectionable— Eidge cultivation may be advisable for potato culture 165,166

Boiling in Relation to Soil Moisture. — Firming the surface to establish capillary connection with the soil below — Rolling may warm soil — Rolling may bring water to the surface — The press drill 166,167

Destructive Effects of Wi>ids. — Conditions for injury — Destructive effects on sandy lands — Influence of groves and hedgerows on evaporation — Protective influence of grass — The value of hedges in windy sections 168-170

Chapter IV

The Increase of Yield Due to Irrigation in Humid Climates (pages 171-195)

Importance of the Amount and Distribution of Water in Potato Culture, and the Advantage of Irrigation in Climates like Wisconsin. — Time and method of planting- Amount of water used — Differences in yield 171-175

Effect of Supplementing the Bainfall in Wisconsin for Cabbage Culture.— Method, of planting — Weight of heads- Influence on yield of thick and thin planting — Amount of water given crop 175, 176

Eff'ect of Supplementing the Bainfall xvith Irrigation on the

Yield of Corn. — Difference in yield and in water used. . 176-178

Effect of Supplementing the Bainfall with Irrigation on the

Yield of Clover and Hay 178,179

A Crop of Barley and a Crop of Hay the Same Season 179-181

Effect of Supplementing the Bainfall for StroM-berries 181

Contents xiii

Closer Planting Made Possible bij Irrigation. — Breathing room in the soil limited — Soil temperature lowered by close planting — Amount of sunshine limited — Tendency to lodge when planted too close — Possible insufficiency of carbon dioxide — Amount of carbon used by maize 181-187

TJie Maximum Limit of Productiveness for Maise. — Mean weight of plants — Maximum yields computed — Observed yields 187-190

Observed Yields of Maize per acre, Planted in Different Degrees of Thickness and loith Di^erent Amounts of Water. — Yields of dry matter— Yields of shelled corn. . 190-193

Influence of Thick Seeding and Irrigation on the Development of the Plant. — Lengthening of the nodes 193-195

CHAPTER V Amount and Measurement of Water for Irrigation (pages 196-221)

The Maximum Duty of Water in Crop Production 196-199

Conditions which Modify the Amount of Water Required far Irrigation. — Peculiarities of crop — Character of soil — Character of subsoil — Character of rainfall — Frequency and thoroughness of cultivation — Closeness of planting — Fertility of land — Frequency of applying water 199-208

Amount of Water Used in Irrigation. — In Italy — In Spain and France — In Egypt — General tables — Mean amount — For sugar cane — Highest probable duty, table — Bushels of grain per cubic foot of water, table 208-217

Duty of Water in Bice Culture 217,218

Duty of Water on Water-meadows 219,220

Duty of Water in Cranberry Culture 220,221 xiv Contents

Chapter VI

Frequency, Amount and Measurement of "Water for Single Irrigations (page 222-247)

Amount of Water for Single Irrigations. — Soil leaching in humid climates — Conditions which determine the amount of water used — Conditions which determine the frequency of irrigation 222-224

Capacity of Soils to Store Water under Field Conditions. — Amount of soil moisture when growth was cheeked — Upper and lower limits of best amount — Amount needed for one irrigation 224-227

Depth of Root Penetration. — Prune on Peach — Apple —

Grape— Raspberry— Strawberry— Alfalfa 227-234

Frequency of Jrn"^«?(o?i.— Theoretical— For wheat— For maize — For clover, alfalfa and meadows — For potatoes —For rice 234-239

Measurement of Water. — Necessity — Advantages 239

Units of Measurement. — Acre-inch — Acre-foot — Second-foot— Miner's inch 239-241

Methods of Measurement . — Time division — Subdivision of

laterals — Use of divisors — Use of modules 241-247

CHAPTER VII Character of Water for Irrigation (pages 248-268)

Temperature of Water for Irrigation. — Best temperature — Danger from cold water — Amount soil temperature may be lowered 248-251

Fertilizing Value of Irrigation Water. — Amount in two acre -

Sewage Water for Irrigation. — On Craigentinny meadows —

Healthfulness of milk from sewage grass 253-258

Contents xv

TJie Value of Turbid Water in Irrigation. — Eio Grande —

Po— Nile— Durance 259, 260

Improvement of Land by Silting. — Warping or colmatage—

Silting of gravelly soils ._ 261-264

Opportunities for Silting in Eastern United States. — In Wisconsin and Michigan — In New York and New Jersey — In the South 264-266

Alkali Waters not Suitable for Irrigation. — Safe and unsafe

alkali waters 266-268

CHAPTER VIII Alkali Lands (pages 269-289) Characteristics of Alkali Lands 269, 270

Causes of Injuries by Alkalies. — Plasmolytie effects — Toxic

effects 270, 271

Hoiv Alkalies Accumulate in the Soil. — By capillarity — In

marsh soils by underflow 272-274

Intensive Farming may Tend to the Accumtdation of Alkalies. 274, 275

Amount of Soluble Salts which are Injurious in Soils. — Conclusions of Plagniol — Of Deh^rain — Of Gasparin — Of Hilgard— Plasmolytie action 275-278

Composition of Alkali Salts. — In California— In Washington . 278-280

Appearance of Vegetation on Alkali Lands. — In arid regions —

In humid regions 281-283

Conditions which Modify the Distribution of Alkalies in Soil.

—Tillage— Shading— Action of roots 283, 284

Use of Land Plaster to Destroy Black Alkali. — Hilgard's

conclusions , 284, 285

Kinds of Soil ivhich Soonest Develop Alkali 286

Correction of Alkali Water before Use in Irrigation 287

Drainage Must be Ultimate Remedy for Alkali Lands 287-289 xvi Contents

CHAPTER IX Supplying Water for Irrigation (pages 290-328)

Diverting River Waters. — Sirhind canal — Kern Island canal — Dangers from seepage — Redlauds system — Redwood pipe line — Invei'ted siphon — Redwood flume — Cement flume — Cement hydrants 290 304

Diverting Underground Waters. — By submerged dams — By

submerged canals — By tunnels 304, 305

Diverting Water hy Tidal Damming 306

Diverting Water by Power of the Stream. — Undershot wheels — Bucket wheels — Turbines — Hydraulic rams — Ramming engines— Siphon elevator 306-310

Utilizing Storm Waters for Drigation 311, 312

Wind Power for Irrigation. — Record of experiments 312-316

Water Pumped in 10-day Periods. — Number of acres a

windmill may irrigate 316-318

Necessary Conditions for the Highest Service with a Windmill.— Good exposure— More than one pump — Storage system 318, 319

The Use of Reservoirs. — Construction— Size to supply given

Pumping Water with Engines.— Cost with gasolene— With

steam— In Egypt 324 327

Use of Animal Power for Lifting Water for Irrigation. —

Persian wheel — Bucket pump— Doon- Shadoof 328

CHAPTER X Methods of Applying Water in Irrigation (pages 329-402)

Principles Governing the Wetting of Soils. — Influence of

texture — Effect of soil becoming dry 330-334

Contents xvii

Principles Governing the Puddling of Soils. — Character of

puddling — Bad effects — Precautions to prevent 334-336

Principles Governing the Washing of Soils. — Tlie common mistake — What constitutes good irrigation — Methods which prevent washing 337^ 338

Field Irrigation by Flooding. — Two different types — Used most where intertillage cannot be practiced — Flooding by running water — As practiced in Colorado — Where slopes are steep — Where fields are short — Flooding by cheeks — Size of checks — Forming cheeks — On irregular slopes — Handling the water — Large systems - Forming check ridges 338-350

Fitting the Surface for Irrigation. — Leveling devices —

Shuart land grader — French land grader 351, 352

Field Irrigation by i^Mrroics.— Adapted to intertillage crops — Watering before planting — Irrigation of potatoes — Watering alternate rows — Lateral spreading of water — Effect on yield— Watering sugar beets and maize 352-359

Water -meadoios. — Laid out for continuous flow — System at Salisbury, England — In Italy — In Belgium — Mountain meadows 359-365

Irrigation of Cranberries. — Laying out the marshes — Rapid flooding and draining — Irrigation of small fields by pumping 365-368

Irrigation of Bice Fields. — South Carolina system — Trunks — Germinating the rice — Dry hoeing — Irrigation after dry growth stage — Prevention of red rice — Upland irrigation 368-373

Orchard Irrigation. — Furrow method best — Capillary spreading of water — Distributing flumes — Foot ditch — Watering by ring furrows 373-381

Cultivation after Irrigation. — The cardinal principle — Forms of orchard cultivators — Importance of cultivation in humid climates 381-383 xviii Contents

Small Fruit Irrigation. — Frequent irrigation needed for strawberries — Watering alternate rows to facilitate picking 383, 384

Garden Irrigation. — Bed irrigation — Bailing system — Ridge and furrowmethod— Basin flooding— At Gennevilliers — At San Bernai'dino 384-391

Irrigation of Lawns and Parks. —Inadequacy of spraying —

Rainfall of humid climates not usually sufficient 391-396

Sub-irrigation. — Not economical of water — Water not applied where most effective — Unequal wetting of the soil — First cost heavy — May be applicable in certain cases 396-402

CHAPTER XI Sewage Irrigation (pages 403-414)

Objects Sought in Sewage Irrigation. — Destruction of organic products — Utilization of fertility carried 403

Climatic Conditions Favorable to Seicage Irrigation . — Warm climates best suited — Cold soils chiefly filters — Large area required for winter handling 404, 405

Process of Sewage Purification by Irrigation and Intermittent Filtration. — Essential conditions — Effect of too rapid application 405, 406

Soils Best Suited to Seicage Irrigation. — Lighter loams and

sandy soils— Any soil adapted if area is sufficient 406

Desirability of Wider Agricultural Use of Sewage in Irrigation.—Exarmples of valuable results — Sections of country specially adapted to it 406-409

Crops Suited to Sewage Irrigation. — Grass, most generally — Soil for intertillage crops fertilized by winter irrigation— Potatoes at Croyden — May injure grass if applied in winter 409-413

Influence of Sewage Upon the Health. — At Gennevillitrs —

Purity of effluent compared with well water 413, 414

Contents xix

CHAPTER XII Pkinciples of Drainage (pages 415-466)

TJie Necessity for Drainage. — Removal of injurious salts —

Better soil ventilation — Makes the soil more firm 416, 417

The Demands for Air in, the /So//. — Supply of free oxygen —

To lessen denitrifieatiou — Facilitates chemieal changes- . 418, 419

How Drainage Ventilates the Soil. — Permits roots and burrowing animals to go deeper — Develops shrinkage checks — Favors granulation of soil — Barometric and temperature changes — Suctional effect of rains 419-421

Too Thorongh Aeration of the Soil. — Leads to destruction of

humus — Care of open soils 421,422

Drainage Increases the Supply of Available Moisture for Crops. — Deeper root penetration — Stronger capillarity — Stronger nitrification — Deeper ground water more available 422, 423

Soil Made Warmer by Drainage. — By lessening surface evaporation — By lowering specific heat — Observed dift'erenees of temperature 423-425

Importance of Soil Warmth. — Relation to germination —

Hastens development of plant-food 425-428

Conditions under ivhich Land Drai)iage Becomes DesiraMe. — Lands subject to frequent overflow— Lands with strong underflow near surface — Tidal plains — Flat lands with heavy subsoils 428

Origin of Ground Water and its Relation to the Surface.— Vertical movement of rains — Surface of ground water

Lines of flow — Growth of rivers 429-435

XX Contents

Rate at which Ground Water Surface Rises away from the Drainage Outlet. — In tile-drained field — Where not tile-drained 435, 436

Depth at which Drains should be Placed. — Kind of crop — Seasonal changes of ground water — Character of soil — Distance between drains 436, 437

Distance Between Drains. — Texture of subsoil — Depth of drain — Interval of time between rains or irrigations — Climatic conditions 437, 442

Kinds of Drains. — Closed — Open — Stone — Wood — Brick

—Peat— Tile— Cement 443-445

How Water Enters Drains. — Rate through the walls — Through the joints — Care in making close joints — Use of collars 445, 446

Fall or Gradient of Drains. — Highest practicable — Selecting course for the main — Care in laying to grade — Change of grade — Use of silt well 447-449

Size of Tile.— 'So specific statement possible except where all details are known — Size increases with length — Seldom smaller than three inches in diameter — Example of sizes and lengths 449-452

Outlet of Drains. — Should have a clear fall — Precautions against injury from frost — Connecting laterals with mains 453, 454

Obstructions to Drains. — From roots— Kinds of trees most

troublesome 455, 456

Laying Out Systems of Tile 456-459

Litercepting the Underflow from Hillsides 459, 460

Draining Sinks and Ponds. — By intercepting surface drainage— By subdrainage 460-462

T}ie Use of Trees in Drainage 462, 463

Contents xxi

Tlie Use of the Windmill in Drainage. — Arrangement for

winter pumping — Subirrigation as an adjunct 463, 464

Lands tchich must be Surface Drained. — Ancient lake bottoms underlaid with clay — Sections where there are no natural surface outlets 464-466

CHAPTER XIII Practical Details op Underdraining (pages 467-492)

Methods of Determining Levels. — Kinds of levels 469-471

Leveling a Field. — Making contour map — Using the level. • 471-473

Location of Mains and Laterals. — Securing the greatest

Staking Out Drains. — Grade pegs 476, 477

Determining the Grade and Depth of Ditches. — Method of

marking stakes for use of ditchers 477-481

Mwe than One Grade on the Same Drain 481

Digging the Ditch. — Tools used — Method of procedure —

Methods of filling 481-488

Cost of Underdraining. — For mains — For laterals 489-491

Feat Marshes 491, 492