Preface
The material presented in this volume has been worked over, at intervals, during many years of professional activity; and certain sections have, as later noted, been published in various technical journals and in private and official reports.
The volume as it now stands represents an attempt to discuss iron ores not merely in their geologic and technical relations, but in their more general relations to industrial conditions. The field thus outlined is broad, and the risk of failure is correspondingly great. But on the other hand there have been exceptional opportunities for studying the iron-ore situation from several widely different standpoints, and something more than a purely technical treatment seemed to be both justified and desirable. The industries based upon iron ores are of interest, directly or indirectly, to the entire business and financial world; and have also to some degree become matters of political concern. Any adequate discussion of the general iron-ore situation must therefore take into consideration many factors not commonly regarded by the geologist or the engineer, and too often passed by as not susceptible of exact definition or scientific treatment. It is hoped that this volume will prove to be, if not conclusive, at least suggestive in these regards.
Beginning with some consideration of the natural abundance and wide distribution of iron, the manner in which this disseminated iron is concentrated into workable ore deposits is discussed in considerable detail. It may be noted, in this connection, that the sedimentary ores are given space more nearly commensurate with their overwhelming importance than has been common practice.
vi PREFACE
The second section of the volume is devoted to discussion of the various factors affecting the value of iron ores and the valuation of ore deposits. An introductory chapter summarizes the basal factors concerned in these matters. This is followed by a discussion of prospecting or exploratory work, in which for the first time an attempt is made to indicate the manner in which theories of origin actually bear upon the examination of ore deposits. Following this are chapters on mining costs, concentrating possibilities, and furnace and mill requirements, so far as any of these matters bear upon the subject of ore valuation. Later chapters of this section treat of prices, markets and other financial aspects of the problem.
Descriptions of the more important ore deposits of the world are contained in the third part of the book. In preparing these descriptions, an attempt has been made to consider the deposits in the light of their present and possible industrial importance. Deposits of local importance and those which are of interest solely as geologic occurrences are not described, and individual mines and ore properties are not noted except as illustrating general types. The attempt has been to give, with regard to each important ore field, sufficient data concerning its location, type, ore grade, shipments and reserves to justify conclusions expressed by the writer, or to enable the reader to form his own conclusions, as to the present and possible future importance of that field. In most cases very full reference lists are included, so that further details can be looked up as desired.
The final section of the volume deals with certain questions of very general interest and great importance. Estimates are given covering the known iron-ore reserves of the world, and the bearing of these estimates upon the probable future development of the iron industry is discussed in some detail. Particular attention is paid to conditions affecting the American iron industry, regarding its own internal development, its relations to foreign competition, and its relation to the State. It is probable that
PREFACE vii
public interest in the last point mentioned will continue until laws are brought into harmony with industrial conditions.
In preparing this book, data have been drawn from a large number of published and unpublished sources, covering both the work of others and my own. In addition to the specific credits given in the text, my acknowledgments are due to the editors of various journals, for permission to re-publish certain sections which I originally published in their columns. The Engineering Magazine, Iron Trade Review, Iron Age, Engineering and Mining Journal and The Annalist are my principal creditors in this regard.
E. C. E.
Washington, D. C.
CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTER I. The Industrial Status of Iron: Relative tonnage importance 2
Relative total values 2
The metals compared, 1901-1910 4
Summary of tonnage and value comparisons 5
Relative natural scarcitv of the metals 6
The American situation '
Summary -> °
PART I. THE ORIGIN OF IRON-ORE DEPOSITS CHAPTER II. The Geologic and Chemical Relations of Iron:
Natural abundance of iron 9
Iron ores and ore deposits 1^
The growth of the earth H
Relative age of rocks ^■^
Geologic chronology ■'•"'
Igneous rocks and iron ■'•'*
Sedimentary rocks and iron 1"
Structure of rock masses ^°
The two series of iron compounds 20
CHAPTER III. The Iron Minerals and Their Relationships: The Grouping of the Iron Minerals 22
Magnetite group 2o
Hematite group "*
Limonite or brown-ore group 25
Iron carbonate group -""
Oft
Iron silicate group -"
Iron sulphide group -''
Chemical relationships of the iron minerals 28
Relative productive importance of the different ores 29
CHAPTER IV. The Formation of Iron-Ore Deposits: Definition of ore and ore deposit 31
Practical bearing of theories of origin 33
The principles of classification 3o
The major groups of ore deposits 36
Removal of iron from crystal rocks 37
ix
X CONTENTS
The transfer and re-deposition of iron 38
The alteration of existing deposits 38
Summary of working classification 39
Relative importance of the groups 39
The ratio of geologic concentration 42
The geologic age of iron deposits 43
CHAPTER V. Sedimentary or Bedded Deposits: Importance and general character 45
Classes of sedimentarj^ ores 47
Transported concentrates 48
Spring deposits 49
Bog deposits 49
Marine basin deposits 50
Carbonate deposits 51
Extent 51
Age and associated rocks 52
iStructure of the ores 52
Composition of carbonate ores 53
Origin of marine carbonates 54
Iron silicate deposits 54
Glauconites of tlie ocean bottom 55
Cretaceous greensands of New Jersey 55
Iron silicate ores of Europe 58
Iron oxide deposits 58
Extent of marine oxide deposits 59
Associated rocks 60
Related phenomena — fossils, etc 62
Structure of marine oxide ores 62
Composition of the original precipitate 64
Summary of structural relations 66
The question of origin 67
Chief typical deposits 69
CHAPTER VI. Replacements and Cavity Fillings: Cavity and pore fillings 72
Normal replacements 75
Relations to the ground surface 77
Extent of the deposits 77
Form of the deposits 78
Composition of the ores 80
Effects of later weathering 80
Chief typical deposits 80
Secondary concentrations 81
Extent of the deposits 81
Relations and importance 82
Requisite conditions 83
CONTENTS xi
Contact replacements 86
Location and form of deposit 86
Chief known occurrences 87
CHAPTER X. Prospecting and Tonnage Determinations: Reasons for valuation 114
The study of origin and, geologic relations 115
Geologic examination 115
Probabilities as to origin 116
Application of geologic studies 117
Sedimentary deposits 117
Normal replacements 117
Secondary concentrations 118
Contact deposits 118
Residual deposits 118
Prospecting methods and costs 118
Available methods of exploration 118 xii CONTENTS
Choice of methods 119
Core drilling 119
Churn drilling 120
Auger drilling 120
Pits and shafts 122
Trenches and drifts 122
Ore density; space and tonnage conversions 123
Theoretical or maximum density 123
Factors decreasing densitj' 123
Densitj^ of actual ores 124
Lake Superior hematities 124
Oolitic and fossil hematites 125
Carbonate ores 126
Brown ores 126
Magnetites 126
CHAPTER XI. Mining Coxditioxs and Costs: General mining methods 127
Cost of mining Lake Superior ores 129
Cost of mining red or Clinton hematites 132
Cost of brown ore mining 134
Cost of mining magnetites 136
Costs in Cleveland district, England 138
Costs in Luxembourg-Lorraine district 139
Comparison of principal districts 140
CHAPTER XII. Furnace and Mill Requirements: Status of the blast furnace 142
Construction and operation 143
Blast furnace fuels 144
Fluxing materials 145
Chemical limitations of the blast furnace 146
Utilization of pig iron 148
The various steel processes 149
Factors influencing metallurgic value of ores 151
CHAPTER XIII. Composition and Concentration of Iron Ores: The impurities of iron ores 152
Universal presence of impurities 152
Sources of the impurities 153
Character of impurities 153
Metallic impurities 154
Alkaline impurities 154
Acid impurities 154
Volatile impurities 155
Phosphorus and sulphur . 155
Distribution of impurities in tyi)ical ores ... . . 155
CONTENTS xiii
The concentration of iron ores 157
General types and possibilities 157
Actual importance of concentration 159
CHAPTER XIV. Ohe Prices, Profits and Markets: Costs and prices 162
Factors included in costs 162
Absolute price limits 163
Effect of metallurgic value on prices 164
Division of the profits 165
Smelting or furnace profits 166
Mining profits 167
Royalties 168
Actual markets and prices 168
Prices of Lake Superior ores 169
The Atlantic ore market 172
CHAPTER XV. The Effect of Time on Valuation: Determination of present value 175
Proper carrying charge 176
Possible changes in ore values 178
CHAPTER XVI. Iron Ores of the United States; General: Status of United States as ore producer 181
American ore output, 1860-1912 183
Imports of iron ore 183
Exports of iron ore 184
Tonnage available for consumption 186
American ore output, by States 186
Iron ore districts of the United States 189
Ore consuming districts of the United States 191
CHAPTER XVII. The Lake Superior District: Location and geology 194
The Lake Superior ore ranges 194
General geology of the Lake region 196
Origin of the ores 197
Mining and concentration 201
Composition and grade of Lake ores 202
Changes in average ore grades 203
Transportation and markets 205
History and statistics 209
Publications on Lake district 211
The Clinton ores of southern Wisconsin 213 xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVIII. The Southern United States: Limitations and advantages 215
Principal southern ore fields 216
Red or Clinton hematites 220
Birmingham district 222
Chattanooga- Attalla region 225
Tennessee-Virginia region 227
Brown ores; Appalachian region 228
Brown ores; Tennessee River region 234
Brown ores; northeast Texas 236
Magnetites and other ores of crystalline area 239
Southern iron-ore requirements 240
Growth of southern iron industry 241
Southern coal reserves 244
Southern market conditions 246
Future market possibilities 248
CHAPTER XIX. The Northeastern United States: General distribution of iron ores 251
Magnetites of Adirondack region, New York 253
Magnetities of New York-New Jersey Highlands 255
Magnetites of southeastern Pennsj'lvania 258
Clinton red hematites of New York and Pennsylvania . . . 259
Brown ores of the northeastern states 259
Red hematites of western Adirondacks 260
Carbonate ores of Ohio and western Pennsylvania 260
Northeastern iron-ore requirements 261
Present ore production 261
Chief sources of supph^ 262
Present ore markets 262
Prospects of future development 262
CHAPTER XX. The Western United States: Productive status of the west 264
Hartville region, Wyoming 265
Iron Springs region, Utah 267
Colorado and New Mexico ores 268
Pacific coast ores 268
The western ore situation 269
Publications on western iron ores 270
CHAPTER XXI. Newfoundland and Canada: Geology of ore region 273
The main ore beds 275
Grade and composition of ore 275
Contents
XV
Market points
Production and shipments
CHAPTER XXIV. Etjeope: Lorraine-Luxembourg region
Other German ore districts. . • •
Other French ore districts . . • ■
Norway, Sweden and Finland .
Spain and Portugal
Austria, Hungary and Bosnia • Italy, Greece and the Balkan regu Belgium
CH
APTER XXV. Asia, Africa and Australia:
Asia
China, Corea and Japan.
British India
. 283
. 283
. 284
. 285
. 285
. 287
297 300 302 304
330 331 333 xvi CONTENTS
North Africa 336
East and South Africa 336
CHAPTER XXVIII. Ownership and Control of American Reserves: Stages in the evokition of opinion 365
The conservation viewpoint 367
Impossibility of actual tonnage monopoly 368
Present status of the discussion 369
Recent views on ore ownership 369
The fundamental question of ownership 371
Effects of independent operation 373
The limitations of reserve ownership 375
Minimum permissible reserves 375-
Maximum advisable reserves 376
Data on actual reserves 377
Industrial effects of over-valuation 379
The feasibility of new competition 379
CHAPTER XXIX. Iron Ore Reserves of the World: World ore reserve estimates of 1910 381
Ore-reserves of North America 385
Dominion of Canada 386
Cuba 388
CONTENTS xvii
Ore reserves of South America 388
Brazil 389
Venezuela, Chile, etc 389
Ore reserves of Europe 390
World's iron-ore reserves; summary estimate 391
Probable future discoveries 392
Duration of known ore supplies 393
Grade and phosphorus content 395
Possibility of metallurgic improvements 396
CHAPTER XXX. World Competition in Iron and Steel: Growth of world's iron industry, 1800-1910 398
The rate of growth of the iron industry 400
Steel production, consumption and exports 401
The basal factors in world competition 402
The world competitors of the future 405
The limit of iron and steel development 406
Decreased demand 407
Substitute materials 408
Raw material exhaustion 409
CHAPTER XXXI. Questions of Public Policy: The Hmits of State interest 411
The encouragement of development 412
The prevention of monopoly 413
The conservation of iron-ore resources 414
The taxation of iron ores 416
Export duties 417
CHAPTER XXXII. Questions of Prh^ate Policy: Reasons for reserve ownership 416
Ore reserves and the banking house 420
Effects of over-valuation 422
The value of large reserves 424
The status of the low-cost producer 426
Index 427
IKON ORES
THEIR OCCURRENCE, VALUATION AND CONTROL
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