An introduction to educational sociology

Front matter

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Preface

Numerous books on social education have been published during the past few years. These have done much to enlarge our conceptions as to the meaning of education, and to em¬ phasize the fact that society as well as the individual is both a means and an end in our educational system. But these books still leave much to be desired. They have approached the subject from the standpoint of education rather than from that of society. They have been written by psycholo¬ gists rather than by sociologists. What is now needed is a clear statement of the social and sociological, as distin¬ guished from the individual and psychological, points of view.

In the past our schools have drawn their inspiration more largely from their own traditions than from their social environment. Consequently education has been too much of an isolated institution. But in our day social organization has become so complex and democratic that we are perforce growing more interdependent and cooperative. It is there¬ fore necessary to increase the reach and broaden the content of school work. As the State has come to include within its purview the aims and methods of most other institutions, so the schools must incorporate within their “ sphere of in¬ fluence ” a larger share of all the activities of youth. This requires a more extensive and inclusive program of educa¬ tional ideals and practices than we have adopted up to the present.

In this work of expanding the field of public education, sociology must take a leading part. For the past halfviii

PREFACE century psychology has been the dominating factor in whatever educational reorganization has taken place. But the recent growth of sociology as a science demands that in the future it be taken into full partnership in all educa¬ tional thinking. For a variety of reasons sociologists have been slow to enter the field of education. They have been so busy outlining the methodology, materials, and general principles of a new science that they have scarcely had time to work out many of its applications. A beginning has been made in several fields, however, and the time now seems ripe to make a beginning in education.

As sociologists have succeeded in delimiting their own field of labor they have reached a fair consensus of opinion concerning the basis of all sociological study. The point of departure in such study is the social group, whether the group be large or small, temporary or permanent, simple or complex. It is therefore the social group as an educational unit upon which we must build an educational sociology.

In the following pages the author has attempted to make a preliminary application of the uses to be made of the group unit in educational theory and practice. Unfortunately the original nature of the venture requires an appeal to widely variant classes of students. In writing for sociologists un¬ trained in educational theory, educators untrained in soci¬ ology, and undergraduates with little training in either field, it has been found necessary to exclude much theoreti¬ cal material of importance and to include much material of an elementary nature. The author’s aim has been at all times to keep in mind the actual needs of students of educa¬ tion of college rank, rather than to make an appeal to ex¬ perts in either education or sociology. What is here written is the result of several years of experience in trying to impress upon college students who are expecting to teach the larger educational point of view that sociology offers to the

PREFACE

IX educator. The author hopes that the present volume may be found to be a useful introductory text in this important new field, leaving to a later date a scientific and logical treatise on the principles of educational sociology.

The author is especially indebted to Professor Charles H. Cooley, of the University of Michigan; Professor Edward H. Ross, of the University of Wisconsin; and Professor U. G. Weatherly, of the University of Indiana, for reading parts of the manuscript and offering criticisms and suggestions; to Dean F. J. Kelly, of the School of Education of the University of Kansas, who has given valuable criticisms on almost every chapter, and to Professor Ellwood P. Cubberley, editor of the series, whose advice and aid have been invaluable. Ideas have been drawn from many sources, but these will be recognized in the body of the work.

Walter Robinson Smith

Emtohia, Kansas,

.

CHAPTER I. Sociology and its Relation to Educa¬ tion . 3

Sociology — The field of sociology — Stages in human develop¬ ment — Pure versus applied science — The nature of progress —

The place of sociology among the sciences — Lines of development in scientific thinking — Utilitarian nature of sociology — Impor¬ tance of sociology for education — Social ends of education — Ef¬ fects of sociological investigation upon the school — Social basis of the school — Educational sociology — Demand for educacational sociology — The promise of educational sociology — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER II. The Individual and the Social Group 21

Relation of sociology and psychology — The individual and the group — Individual mind and social mind — Heredity and environment — Individualism and communism — Innate and acquired characteristics — Types of individuality — The indi¬ vidualism of specialization — Individuality and group inspira¬ tion in art — Group and national individuality — The type of indi¬ vidual needed — Invention versus socialization — Application to education — Training for social participation — Education must be emotionalized — Moral education — Self-sufficiency versus group-sufficiency — Training required for both leaders and fol¬ lowers — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER III. Social Organization ....... 42

Association — Field of educational sociology — Social organi¬ zation — Social osmosis — Communication — Association and education — Social selection applied to youth — Methods of contactual influence — Imitation — The psychological basis of group education — Institutions — Analysis of social groups — Influence of primary groups ■ — • Primary ideals — Expansion of ideals in intermediate and secondary groups — Evolution of a single ideal — Racial virtue — Need of correlation in educational effort — The school the basis of coordination — -Reorganization needed — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

XU

CHAPTER IV. The Primary Social Groups .... 61

Primary group influences — The nature of the family — Early family impressions — Large importance of the family group — Changing conditions of the home — Old home training — Speci¬ fic weaknesses of the present-day home — Loss in physical in¬ genuity — Loss in mental continuity — Loss in moral steadiness — Loss in vocational training — New demands upon the school — School and home cooperation — School credit for home work —

The school and home-making — Topics for discussion and inves¬ tigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER V. The Primary Social Groups .... 78

Public attitude toward play — Theories as to play — The physi¬ cal value of play — The intellectual value of play — The social value of play — Play develops fairness and loyalty — Team con¬ sciousness — The gang — The gang spirit — Play and work —

Play among older people — Education and the play group — Es¬ sential features of good playground work — School, home, and street play — The Boy Scout movement — Charitable and pub¬ lic playgrounds — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER VI. The Primary Social Groups .... 97

The community group — Evolution of the community group — Importance of the small group — Social strength of the group — Religion and group life — The school and the community —

The school and political training — Specific political training — Training for economic life — Continuity in training — Training for social life — Training for cooperative effort — The school as a social center — The school and community action — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER VII. Educational Functions of Intermedi¬ ate Groups . . . 115

Intermediate groups — • Labor unions — Educational influence of the union — The American Federation of Labor — Farm or¬ ganizations — Farmers’ Institutes — Professional associations — Fraternal, social, and culture clubs — Women’s clubs — Educa¬ tional accomplishments of women’s clubs — Scientific, art, and literary societies — Philanthropic foundations — The Church — xiii

Church organization — Beginning of church education — Struggle between Church and State — Effects of the separation of Church and school — Permanence of separation — Possible methods of religious training — Student-pastors, and religious organiza¬ tions — Moral instruction in schools — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER VIII. The State and Education .... 137

Importance of the modern State — Nature of the State — Evo¬ lution of the State — Forms of government — Increase of govern¬ ment functions — The State as a telic force — Education as the telic agent of the State — Problems of citizen training — Training for economic life — Vocational training — Training for social life — Social education — Coeducation — Domestic economy — Training for cultural life — Evolution toward refinement — Education in the arts — Training for political life — The social sciences — Nationalistic education — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER IX. The Growth of Democracy, and its Relation to Education . 159 The trend toward democracy — The ideal of democracy

The evolution of political democracy — The expanding service rendered by government — Economic democracy — Exploitation — The advance of social democracy — Democracy of culture — Other phases of democracy — Democracy in education — The dead-level theory — Democratic selection — Achievements of the com¬ mon people — Evolutionary nature of achievement — Demo¬ cratic nature of present world problems — Necessity for a wide distribution of intelligence — Topics for discussion and investi¬ gation — Selected references.

CHAPTER X. The Evolution of the Modern School 175 Informal education — The fundamentals in educational evo¬ lution

1. Extension of education from the classes to the masses — The educational pyramid — Educational history summarized — New modem educational needs — New working conditions demanded broader training — Education of women — Conquest of illiter¬ acy.

2. Evolution of the utilitarian curriculum — From form to use — Training for leisure versus work — Changes in subject-matter and methods — Downward extension of studies — Recent up¬ ward extension.

xiv

3. Development of state educational control — The Church in early education — • Growth of universities — • Development of pub¬ lic schools — Assumption of new educational functions — 1 Mu¬ tual dependence of the agencies of improvement.

Topics for discussion and investigation — • Selected references.

PART II. EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS CHAPTER XI. Social and Educational Subveys . .197

Need of educational adaptability — Education as a science — Hypothesis and experimentation — ■ Scientific tests and measures — The social survey — Types of survey — The educational survey — History of the school survey — Initiative for a school survey, and personnel — Scope of a school survey — The values of a school survey: (1) Value to the teacher — (2) Value to the adminis¬ trator — • (3) Value to the school board — • (4) Value to the pub¬ lic — ■ (5) Value to educational science — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER XII. Social factors in School Adminis¬ tration . 216 The Process of Socialization

1. Fundamental principles of public school administration — Equality of opportunity — Democratic efficiency — Autocratic versus democratic organization — • Rising standards of efficiency.

2. Phases of general school administration — • (1) Control by the public — • Growth of state control — The Federal Government in education — 'Financial control — 'Method of control — Selection of the school board — 1 (2) Work of the boards of education — Juris¬ diction of the board — • Public versus corporation management — Appointing function of the board — Executive versus school-board control — Training of administrators — • (3) The teaching staff — ■ The teacher and the public — Professionalization of teach¬ ing — • The economic status of the teacher — • Continuity of serv¬ ice — • Feminization of teaching — Organization of the teaching staff — Articulation of the schools with other institutions.

Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER XIII. The Socialization of Discipline . . 244 The Problem of Discipline Twofold nature of the problem — Principles of discipline

Basis of harmony — Negative versus positive discipline — Di¬ rect versus indirect discipline — Planes of discipline — Military xv discipline — Personal discipline — Social discipline — • The dis¬ ciplinary ideal — Punishment — ■ Rewards — School organizations — • The fraternity problem — Student self-government — Topics for discussion and investigation — • Selected references.

CHAPTER XIV. The Socialization of the Program of Studies . 265

Meaning of socialization — ■ Practical nature of culture — The test of socialization — Possible objections — ■ Aims of a socialized program — Appreciation — Information — Adjustment to local needs — Utilization — • New social activities — Means of sociali¬ zation — Organization of materials — Socialized methods of teach¬ ing — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected refer¬ ences.

CHAPTER XV. The Social Basis of Utilitarian Edu¬ cation . 284 New Problems of Mass Education

1. The purpose of youth — The meaning of infancy — Parallels in the industrial world — Need for the vocational training of youth — Prolonging educational infancy.

2. Importance of the economic interest in society — The economic factor — Economic surplus and intellectual progress — Leisure and education — Why the nineteenth century was so wonderful — Leisure and the fine arts.

3. The importance of vocations in human society — Vocation and social efficiency — Increasing emphasis on vocation — Rela¬ tion of vocational to liberal education — No essential conflict — ■ Early education vocational.

Topics for discussion and investigation — ■ Selected references.

CHAPTER XVI. Vocational Aspects of a Socialized Education . 301 Adaptation of our Schools to the Needs of the Masses

1. Changes necessary in the grades — Eliminations and substi¬ tutions — Aims of the elementary school.

2. Needed differentiation of courses — 1 Motivation — Extent of differentiation — • Differentiation in schools.

3. Changes in equipment and method required — An approxima¬ tion to working conditions — Demand for training in the trades — Cooperation of the school and the business world — Objections to a vocationalized program — - Variability of vocational ambition — The materialistic motive — Occupational culture — Types of vocational training needed.

Topics for discussion and investigation — • Selected references.

XVI

CHAPTER XVII. Vocational Guidance as a Socialized School Function . 319

Vocational guidance necessary to vocational education — 'Vo¬ cational maladjustment — • Specific studies showing the need of guidance — A study of high school boys — Vocational guidance in our schools — • Unconscious guidance — 1 2 Occupations of college graduates — Vocational choice adds definiteness to school interest — Early vocational choice aids continuation work — • Moral value of vocational guidance — Training course should test wisdom of the vocational choice — Development of vocational ethics — Ethi¬ cal mission of vocational training — Beginnings of vocational guidance in the schools — ■ Vocational guidance a school function — Methods of vocational guidance — The industrial survey — • Study of the vocational aptitudes of pupils — Advising the stu¬ dent in choice of studies — School employment bureaus — Vo¬ cational counselors — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER XVIII. Cultural Aspects of a Socialized Education . . 339

Ideals of culture — Culture and democracy — • Pervasiveness of democratic culture — • Inclusiveness of democratic culture — The means of democratic culture — • The fine arts — The utilitarian arts — Culture in the public schools — Culture and school ad¬ ministration — Cultivated leadership — • Cultural elements in school discipline — Cultural elements in the curriculum — ■ The cultural equivalence of school studies — Cultural traditions ver¬ sus freshness in point of view — Cultural versus utilitarian empha¬ sis — • Cultural elements in teaching method — Cultural outlook of the schools into the community — • What we may expect of democratic culture — Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

CHAPTER XIX. Socialization of Teaching Methods 362

Function of the socialization of method — The psychology of group stimulus — Social phases of the learning process — In¬ fluence of the group on the individual — • Isolated and group ac¬ tivity — The school as a social group — Complexity of the group — Unity of spirit a development.

1. Spontaneous play groups — Spontaneous work groups.

2. Deliberately organized extra-classroom groups — Group ath¬ letics — Cultural groups — Social groups — Moral groups.

8. Group method within the classroom — The recitation — Recita-

CONTENTS xvii

tion contacts — Group projects — Social functioning of group methods.

Topics for discussion and investigation — • Selected references.

CHAPTER XX. The Essentials of the Socialized School . 383

1. The socialized rural school — Rural-school conditions —

(1) Rural-school administration — Lack of funds — ■ (2) The teach¬ ing force — Percentages of trained teachers — (3) The rural cur¬ riculum — Rural socialization.

2. Essentials of a socialized rural school — (1) Consolidation of rural districts — • (2) Need for better equipment — (3) Need for better financial support — (4) Socializing the teaching force —

(5) Socializing the curriculum — (6) Community interest in the schools.

3. The socialized city-school system. — Basis of the city problem — The city frontier — City-school administration — 1 Further city-school expansion — Reorganizing the curriculum — Making the school a social center — Professionalizing the teachers — The socialization of teaching methods — Signs of progress.

Topics for discussion and investigation — Selected references.

...

AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

PART I

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

AN INTRODUCTION TO

Chapter I Sociology And Its Relation To Education

Sociology. The briefest acceptable definition of sociology is.that it is the science of human association. Its study im¬ plies an examination of the laws and principles underlying .human relations and an interpretation of the phenomena of group life. It is the youngest and least developed of the general sciences to challenge the attention of the thinker and the educator. On that account it has been made the scapegoat of many intellectual and sentimental sins. En¬ thusiastic students and fanatical reformers have both rioted in its inviting fields and used the name of science to further their propagandas. Careful scientists have likewise been at work, and, while frequently differing in methods of approach and formulae established, they have succeeded in laying firmly the foundations of this most promising, in many respects, of all the sciences.

The term “sociology” was first used and the basic con¬ ceptions of the new science proclaimed in Auguste Comte's Cours de Philosophic Positive, published in 1842. His vaguely defined ideas were shortly taken up and elaborated by Herbert Spencer, August Schaffle, and Lester F. Ward. They were followed by a host of other investigators and writers, and about twenty-five years ago sociology began to enter the universities as a regular study. This led to a more uniform method of treatment, and a better consensus of opinion regarding the scope and limitations of the field of knowledge to be covered.

The field of sociology. A general statement of this field appears in Professor Franklin H. Giddings’s comprehensive definition as follows: “ Sociology is an attempt to account for the origin, growth, structure, and activities of society Iby the operation of physical, vital, and psychical causes working together in a process of evolution.” This defini¬ tion indicates clearly the relation of sociology to the other sciences, and its differentiation from them. For a knowl¬ edge of the “ physical, vital, and psychical causes ” or laws it is wholly dependent upon the physical sciences, the ge¬ ology, geography group, biology, and psychology. None of those sciences, though, deal with the “ origin, growth, structure, and activities of society,” which is exactly what sociology does deal with. In the same way sociology de¬ pends for much of its material upon the laws and principles and data of the other social sciences — history, economics, politics, ethics, criminology, ethnology, etc. It is differen¬ tiated from them, however, by the generality of its prob¬ lems, data, and conclusions. Economics deals with one phase of society, political science another, ethics a third, and so on. Sociology, on the contrary, deals with society as a whole, whether treated in small units, such as the family and tribe, or in larger units, such as the State and Christendom.

Any_ system of sociology — and it is so complex and comprehensive that most of the writers who attempt to cover the field speak of their efforts as a system — jnust treat more or less fully four phases of society. The first phase is that of social origins. Sociology^ must explain the basis of human association. Man is not primarily social any more than he is individualistic. There must be some basis of attraction to get him to unite in social groups, and some cohesive force to hold those groups together. Many of our social customs and institutions have their roots deep in the early history of man’s life on this planet, and those origins must be traced and explained. The expanding lit¬ erature of sociology indicates that this is rapidly being done.

Stages in human development. The second phase of so¬ ciology deals with social history. Man is found in three fundamental stages of development — savagery, barba¬ rism, and civilization, each of which may be subdivided into other stages. A fourth stage is distinguished by some writers, that of enlightenment or culture. The steps of advancement in this progress must be noted, and the evo¬ lution of our organized social structure traced. Our ordi¬ nary history deals almost wholly with civilization, and this must be supplemented by the work of the archaeologist, ethnologist, and sociologist. This phase is generally called “historical” or “descriptive” sociology.

The third phase of sociology is concerned with social conditions or social theory. It may be said to deal with society in cross-section, and is primarily analytical. Social beliefs, customs, traditions, institutions, social feelings, sentiments, opinions, and actions must be analyzed, classi¬ fied, and set forth.

The final phase of sociology deals with social ameliora¬ tion and progress. Whatever is grew out of something that was, and is leading to something that will be. If we know what exists and how it came to be what it is, we know the stream of tendency and can, with reasonable scientific certainty, predict the immediate future in any line. Like¬ wise, if we know the influences which made any human condition what we find it to be, we can, with scientific precision, point out the influences that must be brought to bear upon that condition to improve it. Thus we have practical or applied sociology.

Pure versus applied science. A better division of the sub¬ ject from our standpoint would be to include the first three phases, social origins, social history, and social conditions, under the general term of “ pure ” sociology, as distin¬ guished from “ applied ” sociology. This would preserve the distinction found in the other sciences between the pure and applied. Pure science in any field deals with the laws and principles of the particular science; applied science, with the applications of those laws and principles to the various arts of life. We have pure mathematics, and ap¬ plied mathematics as worked out in mechanics and engi¬ neering. Likewise, we have pure psychology, and genetic, abnormal, and educational psychology. Used in this sense pure sociology treats of the general laws and principles of the science, while applied sociology deals with its applica¬ tion to the social problems of contemporary life. Pure sci¬ ence in general exists for the sake of applied science. As the value of physics or psychology is judged by the im¬ portance of the arts for which it forms the basis, so the value of sociology will depend upon the aid it can render human welfare by elevating the art of living in an organ¬ ized society.

The nature of progress. Civilization has shown two kinds of progress — incidental, and deliberately planned or telic. Incidental progress results from pursuing the line of least resistance, of adapting self to environment. Telic progress is the result of thought, of planning, of overcoming ob¬ stacles and adapting the environment to self. Incidental progress waits upon circumstances and is necessarily slow. Telic progress pushes ahead to its goal. Physical develop¬ ment is largely incidental; psychic development is. nyyc telic. Primitive man developed incidentally; modern man deliberately. Science has been the handmaiden of telic growth. As the science passes from the physical to the psychic, from nature to man, it becomes more direct in its telic significance. The science which can apply its prin¬ ciples directly to human improvement, to religion, govern¬ ment, morality, and education, may expect to revolutionize those fields. The development of the physical sciences and their application have given man a mastery over natural forces little dreamed of by our ancestors. A similar con¬ quest over retarding human forces will follow greater psy¬ chical and sociological knowledge, with its practical appli¬ cation to telic advancement.

The place of sociology among the sciences. The com¬ parative value to existing civilization of the various sci¬ ences, when fully developed, may be seen by examining a classification of those sciences. The most illuminating analysis is that of Auguste Comte, as revised by Herbert Spencer and Professor Ward. This classification is based upon the “ positiveness ” or demonstrability of the data of each science. Mathematics, being the most positive and exact knowledge we possess, is used as the standard of measurement. According to this test the sciences must be grouped in the following serial order: —

1. Astronomy.

2. Physics.

3. Chemistry.

4. Biology.

5. Psychology.

6. Sociology.

An analysis of this grouping shows several lines of devel¬ opment. The first or basic one is from the more exact to the less exact. Thus the phenomena and laws of astronomy may be determined with more finality than those of physics, physics than chemistry, chemistry than biology, and so on through the list. Astronomy deals with cosmic or world phenomena where the units are large and the laws are so universal that local environment produces little variation. On the other hand, psychology deals with highly organ¬ ized human units where every phase of environmental pressure produces a distinct variation.

The second line of development is that from the simple to the complex. This follows naturally from the former principle, since the exactness of a science is in inverse pro¬ portion to its complexity. The facts and laws and prin¬ ciples of astronomy are few and simple in comparison with those of the less exact sciences of biology, psychology, and sociology. Physics deals with the comparatively simple and unchanging phenomena of matter and material forces, while sociology, the last of the series, deals with complex individuals, organized into highly complex and variable social groups, reacted upon by an infinitely complex en¬ vironment.

The third basis for the classification is the -order of rela¬ tionship, or “ filiation.” Each of the later sciences in the series is genetically differentiated from the previous one, and is largely dependent upon it for many of its general principles. A knowledge of physics is necessary to the chemist, of chemistry to the biologist, of biology to the psychologist, and in a less immediate way a knowledge of the general principles of each of the preceding sciences is required in all.

Lines of development in scientific thinking. The devel¬ opment of science follows the general line of evolution from the general to the specific, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from the physical to the mental. The con¬ clusions of the simpler sciences are used in constructing the more complex; for example, the principles of molecular attraction and biological selection are used to illuminate the study of social laws. The physical sciences pave the way for the biological, the biological for the psychological, and the psychological for the sociological. One of the advan¬ tages sociology has had over the previous sciences is that it was started in a more scientific age, and immediately rec¬ ognized its dependence upon the previous sciences in the series. It used the principles developed in the simpler sci¬ ences in studying its more complex phenomena, and based many of its precepts upon analogies and parallels found in the material and biological worlds. Its progress has been more rapid than the earlier sciences because it had no such struggle as did astronomy to free itself from astrology, or psychology to break the fetters of speculative philosophy.

This genetic relation of the sciences is also the basis of a time relation in their development. Astronomy grew out of astrology centuries ago; physics and chemistry out of natural philosophy and alchemy at a later date; biology got a good start in the eighteenth century; psychology is essentially a nineteenth-century product; and sociology is merely getting under way at the opening of the twen¬ tieth century. The exact, the simple, and the parent sci¬ ences were developed slowly in ages of crude scientific speculation, each building up principles and methods for its lineal descendant, and all paving the way for rapidity of progress in later times. The scientific spirit of the present is the outgrowth of these cumulative efforts of the past, but it stresses the more significant developments of recent research in the higher fields of the later sciences.

Utilitarian nature of sociology. One other line of devel¬ opment is shown in this classification of the sciences, that of progress from the less directly useful to the more directly useful. Aristotle long ago laid down the principle that the proper study of mankind is man. An understanding of the laws of astronomy is useful, of the principles of physics more useful, and so on, each of the series showing an ascending scale of relative utility. A knowledge of cosmic principles, of the laws of the physical world, and of the phenomena of early life as presented in biology is highly important; but knowledge in each of those fields is not equally important. The living forms of the biological world are nearer to man and the principles governing their lives are a more intimate concern of his than the questions of celestial control or material domination. Moreover, the vital reactions in the psychical world and the intimate re¬ lationships of social organization and control are of still more vital concern to us.

The most utilitarian knowledge we can possess is that of the laws of human association and the principles that guide human action. The promotion of human welfare, which may be considered the chief aim of civilization, de¬ pends largely upon a sufficient knowledge of the forces controlling the life about us to guide the activities of so¬ ciety into higher channels. Social betterment is the cry of the age. As the organizer has become the most highly paid worker in our industrial life, so the leader in coopera¬ tive social effort is the most highly prized worker in the political, religious, and educational fields. The technical ex¬ pert whose knowledge gives him control over the forces of nature is less honored by society to-day than the adept manipulator of human forces who is able to dominate world movements. Both workers are necessary, but one deals in a higher order of relations than the other. The wielder of weapons and tools and the delver into nature no longer lead in moulding civilization. Leadership has passed to the student of human nature, the workman whose materials are the mind of man and the constitution of society.