How children learn to draw

Preface

Some of the recent helpful contributions to the subject of teaching drawing have been in the form of theories as to what ought to be accomplished. Others have been in the form of descriptions of the devices and methods employed in various places. This book brings both of these points of view into close relationship, not only l)y presenting them together in the same volume but also by recording the particular classroom experiences which formed the basis for the theory given and which in turn have been modified by that theory.

It seemed to us that the concreteness of a detailed description of the exjDeriments and theory of one school would compensate for the necessary limitations of such a treatment. We hope that the results are representative enough to justify us in having given to the description of the work of a single institution a name so broad in its significance as the title of this book.

Our sincere thanks are due to the instructors in the Elementary School whose cooj^eration made possible the close relation of drawing with the other subjects, and also to Mr. Harry Orrin Gillet, principal of the Elementary School, for his concurrent efforts and for his helpful suggestions regarding the manuscript.

THE AUTHORS Chicago, Illinois

CONTEXTS

PAGE

IXTRODUCTIOX 1

CHAPTER

I. The Illustration of Themes 3

II. The Drawing of Birds, Plants, and the

Human Figure 115

III. The Drawing of Constructed Ob.ie( ts . . . 169

IV. Interests and Standards of Attainment . . 210

V. Conclusions as to how Children learn to

Draw 231

IXDEX 263

HOW CHILDREN LEARX TO

DRAW

Introduction

The methods of teaching clrawmg in the Elementary School of the School of Education in The University of Chicago during the past few years have been in the nature of an experiment to discover how children learn most readily to use drawing as a common means of self-expression.

Two uses of drawing have been emphasized : first, its use as a means of intellectual expression which differs essentiallv from verljal lano-uao^e and therefore offers a unique method of analyzing and dealing with subjects and showing them in a new light; second, its use as a form of aesthetic expression, a means of developing artistic appreciation, and an avenue to the sources of esthetic enjoyment.

Any means that appear ultimately to promote appreciation and ability in self-expression have been given fair trial, hoAvever questionable from the traditional artistic standpoint they may appear at first sight. For example, in building up a vocabulary of forms, direct observation has been supplemented by

2 HOW CHILDREX LEAEX TO DEAW

some coppng and occasionally even by tracing, and a few forms have been taught at first by dictation.

As high a class average has been expected in drawino; as in any other subject. Methods as systematic as those in other subjects have been employed, and unpromising beginnings, even in the upper grades, have not been regarded as reasons for discouragement. Special talent in art has received the same consideration as does special talent in mathematics or in language. Daily records of each step followed in dealing with various topics have been kept, in order that from time to time the work of the children may be studied and modified in the light of all the details of procedure.

This book presents some of these records, selected to show representative series of lessons, accompanied by explanatory notes and illustrations from the work of the children. This description of classroom method is followed l^y a statement of the conclusions reached as a result of this experiment, in the form of a theory as to how children learn to draw. While it is the intention of this book to select and deal specifically with only one of the major lines of art instruction in elementary schools, namely, pictorial representation, it will be noted that design is so intimately involved that it is necessarily given almost equal emphasis.

Most of the methods and materials used are available for schools ever}^vhere.

CHAPTER I THE ILLUSTPvATIOX OF THEMES

The illustration of themes occuiTing; in school subjects other than drawing gives the children experience in practically all the phases of drawing which a school course needs to include. In the first place, each of these subjects constitutes a center which furnishes the narrative or subject interest — the definite "something to tell " which is necessary for all good drawing. Secondly, it provides the motive for gathering data which shall make these drawings adequate descriptions of the subject under consideration. These data insure drawincrs much richer in detail of descriptive material than would be possible if the children drew simply from their imagination. It necessitates studving; reference material, such as ob-

\j CD '

jects or pictures, and learning how to represent the forms or pictorial effects necessary for full illustration of the theme. Thirdly, it gives practice in pictorial composition and provides opportunity for experimenting with the arrangement and spacing of the illustration in a way that contributes at the same time to the clearest presentation of the subject matter and also to the most pleasing design. This involves, in addition to experimentation with various space arrangements and a discussion of the different effects produced, a study of the best examples of pictorial composition, under conditions which relate them innnediately and intimately to the child's efforts to make a harmonious desiijjn out of his own illustration. For example, after the children have worked out such a theme as occui)atiuns in agriculture, acquaintance with the com])osition of Millet's pictures of workers in the lields oilers them deiinite suggestions as to improving tlieir own arrangements.

The teacher encounters the ])r()hlem of using themes as they occur iu the regular school program and still kee])in<j: tlie intcLrritv of the course in drawing. The two greatest dillicidties are these: First, the value (»f (Irawiiuj- does not lie whollv in its use as an accom])animeut of other subjects. It lias its own characteristic realm, which its use in relation to other subjects does not entirely cover. The child's progress in drawing is not always best ministered to by compelling it to conform to his progress in the other sc1io(j1 sul)iects. Second, themes selected from the general educational program do not always furnish the interests most vital to good drawing. These two dithculties are worth serious consideration.

However, facts seem to indicate that the instructor who sees most clearly what grounds the drawing should cover, and who has also the most

THE ILLUSTEATIOX OF THEMES 5

comprehensive knowledge of the school work as a whole and of the part drawing should have in this work, is generally the one who sees in the themes supplied l)y tlie sul)ject matter of the general curriculum the best possible opportunity for accomj^lishing the specific ends he desires in the drawing.

With regard to tlie vitality of the interests furnished ]jy these school themes, it may be said that interest in any suljject which continues through successive lessons is cumulative. The instructor in drawing wlio uses school themes for material is able to reenforce the particular interest which arises in the drawing by taking advantage of the interest already awakened in the subject chosen and thus to utilize the momentum of both.

This is not to say that the subject matter of other school work should furnish the entire material for drawing. Nevertheless, when on the one hand special instructors in drawing have a comprehensive knowledge of the s^rade ^^'ork as a whole, and when on the other hand the school authorities no longer regard drawing as a special subject, the pedagogy of which is essentiallv different in nature from that of other subjects, it will be found that the teaching of drawing is vitalized, and that its scope is widened rather than narrowed bv close alliance with the rest of the school program. The following pages describe in detail the workino; out of several school themes. These themes

6 HOW rillLDPvEX LEAEX TO DRAW

are not in anv way intended to show the actual subjects which should be taken in every school. They were selected because they were the themes which occurred in connection with the other studies, and are described because they offer typical examples and not because they are necessarily the best subject matter.

THE ILIJ'STIJ ATIOX OF HISTORY Gkadk I

The study of Indian life forms one of the history topics in tlie first grade. Jenks's " The Childhood of Ji-Shib" is used as a basis for this work. The story is told in a simple and dramatic way. The children work out many of the activities of Indian life by constructing Indian villages upon the sand table and by dramatizing parts of the story. This necessitates a close study of the wigwam, canoe, weapons, food, animals, etc. Each child makes an '' Indian Book," in which he keeps all his written papers and illustrations. The following points are copied from the history outline :

Drawing :

(a) Sketches of wigwams, canoes, utensils, etc.

(J)) Free-hand drawings to represent various phases of

Indian life, as hunting, cooking, etc. (r) Working out designs for the cover of the " Indian Book."

THE ILLUSTRATIOX OF THEMES . 7

This informs the instructor in drawing definitely as to what hnes of illustration the grade teacher thinks will contriljute most to the history. The work of drawing in relation to this particular history topic is here given in full detail, as it was actually presented to the class.

Fig. 1. A Child's First Sketch of Indian Life

1. After the children had been given Indian stories they were told to draw a picture w^hich would show some phases of Indian hfe (Fig. 1). The class then had opportunity to see all the sketches together and to talk them over. They saw clearly the need for better drawing of certain important objects. For example, they saAV the need of being able to make a better drawing of a canoe. They were then given

8 HOW CHILDREN LEAEX TO DRAW

detaiU'd practice A\itli the shape of the canoe. First they drew from a small model. It was found that they were able to appreciate the shape much Ijetter if they traced it in the air ^vith a finger, then drew it on the lx)ard, and lastly on paper. This was followed 1j}- free-hand cutting of the canoe shape. As a result of this ])ractice, three fourths of the children were id)le to represent the shape fairly well. Those wlio (lid not get a good shape practiced again and ag-ain, tracing it in tlie air and on the board, the teacher drawing with tlu'iu (Fig. 2). The same method Avas followed in studying the shape of the wigwam, namely, traciug it in the air and drawing it on the board and on paper, with suggestions from models and pictures, and then cutting it free-hand from paper.

2. The cliildrcii made simple pictorial couipositions, using elements which they had just learned; namely, the wigwam and the canoe. They now criticized their first pictures again, this time wdth regard to the position of sky lines and the placing of trees and water. They compared their own drawings wdth other pictures, in order to see how skilled artists had represented these things. Tliey made particular notes regarding the representation of the sky line and the placing of trees with regard to the horizon. The instructor then made very sinii3le illustrative sketches showing the children how^ to represent

To Dti<vv.

Fig. 2. Successive Steps ix leakxing to draw a Caxoe

10 HOW CHILDPvEX LEARX TO DRAW

the sky line and Avater. She did this by drawing quickly before the class, using the same sort of crayons and paper which the children had and letting these sketches serve not as copies but as illustrations of the process, thus giving the children the stimulus of seeing someone actually draw the lines which i)i'()duced the effect. These drawings were put into the waste])asket as fast as they were made. AVitli tlie suggestions and tlie fresh impulse thus gained, each child redrew his own picture, putting in wigwams, canoes, and Indians, as needed. For the Indians, skeleton outlines were used, and the feather headdress, a feature so characteristic of Indians in the mind oF the child, was added. Fig. 3 shows sketches resulting from this step.

3. It became necessary now, in order to carry out the sketches in further detail, that the shapes of certain Indian weapons and tools should ])e learned. Actual examples of these weapons and tools were available from the school museum. These were brought in, and the children drew them, following the same metliod as in the case of the previous objects. The weapons were then cut free-hand from paper. The following shapes were studied : bow and arrow, scraper, knife, ax, hammer, etc. (Fig. 4).

4. In order to illustrate a particular story it was necessary to learn how to draw the papoose. The children had pictures and little models of the case r

Fig. 3. Illustrations involving Wigwams and Canoes

Fig. 4. Studies of Indian Tools and Weapons i n ,

Fig. 5. Sketches of the Case in which a Papoose was carried u

HOW CHILDREN LEAEX TO DRAW in which the papoose is carried. The essential hnes which showed the construction of the case were dictated by the teacher, because it was somewhat more complicated than the preceding objects. The children were then left free to decorate it as they chose, using

Fk;. (I. Dkawinc; of an Indian Camp

suggestions gained from the models and illustrations (Fig. 5).

5. At this point the children again made pictures ilhistrating; Indian life. These were more elaborate than those previously made, because of the increased number of objects which they had studied and could introduce (Fig. 6). Care was taken to emphasize the objects which were of most interest.

noo^HlfMM

I I -^ l_OOJ)

] J KUST R\>1NG

LIGHTNING

A

Houses iKAViLi-Aoe

Fig. 7. Symbols from Indian Designs

16 HOW CHILDREX LEAKX TO 13EAW

6. A simple study of Indian design and pottery was then made. Indian baskets and pottery were brought into the room from the school museum. The children looked these over and selected those designs which interested them most and those which they found repeated many times. They were then told how each design meant something to the Indians, and they compared the elements of the Indian designs witli the design units which they themselves made from flowers, fisli. etc., for borders (see p. 88). The teacher then drew on the board certain typical forms selected from the Indian designs, for example, Fig. 7. The children practiced making these, until they could repeat them easil}-. and then arranged them into borders appropriate for use on pottery (Fig. 8). They then cut out pottery shapes, folding the paper before cutting so that both sides would be alike. Thev decorated these, using several of the designs suggested by the actual pottery. Some study was then made of the colors used by the Indians on their vases, and the children attempted to get colors like these, using only red, black, and white.

7. For somewhat over a week the children spent the time devoted to history and to constructive work in making Indian designs which they had learned, drawing them with colored crayons. Small models of the wigwam were constructed, and ornamented with Indian designs. Later two or three wigwams wmmmr^

GRADE 1_ INDIAN M5tGN5

Hyti'.

M

Fig. 8. Applications and Arrangements of Indian Designs

HOW CHILDREN LEAKN TO DKAW large enough to play in were constructed in the school garden l)y the children. Each child made an Indian costume in school and wore it (Fig. •>). They also made bows, arrows, etc. During the period of this work, trips were taken to the Field Museum,

Fig. 9. Indian Costumes made by the Cihldiien

where the children had oj^portunity to see real canoes, wigwams, weapons, costumes, etc.^

8. AVhile this work was beinsr done each child was constructing a book which contained his Indian stories and illustrations. The title "Indians" was placed upon the cover. Indian designs were used in

1 Where such material is not available, pictures and photographs furnish a fairly adequate substitute.

Fig. 10. Cover for Book of Indian Studies the decoration of the cover, and also throughout the book as decorative units. Each child chose one of the forms of Indian design with which the class had become familiar during their study and used it as his 23articular decorative unit. Fig. lU shoAvs one of these book covers.

In these steps of theme study all the art interests which appear in this grade have been satisfied. There has been the free expression of narrative interest. There has been the building up of a few clear i mental images to make narrative expression more complete and satisfying and to form the beginnings of a usaljle graphic vocabular\'. This study of objects has been as thorough and systematic, merely from the point of view of the method employed, as would have been possible had the drawing been a special subject, wholly dissociated from any theme. It has involved practice, and the use of both objects and pictures as reference material. The increasing skill and knowledge have been assimilated at each step by continued drawing of picture stories of Indian life. There has been also a great deal of expression of the more purely aesthetic interests, in the composition of the sketches and in the study and use of elements of Indian design. The influence of seeing someone draw has also been an important factor.

The theme has suggested, intensified, and amplified the story interest. The cumulative momentum of narrative interest has been reenforced by the historical interest. The theme has also provided an important motive for studying composition and arriving

THE ILLUSTRATIUX OF THEMES 21

at some genuine artistic appreciation, because the children are themselves composing pictures. In this actual composition the more formal elements of balance, rhythm, and harmony tend to appear natm^ally, under the impulse to set forth a definite interest forciljly and beautifully. Added suggestions come because the children compare their own drawings with good designs and compositions dealing with the same sul)ject. The value of any verbal discussion of formal elements of composition in order to make them intellectually appreciated at this age is at best slight. Indeed it is a question whether any explicit discussion of these elements in elementary schools is not a hindrance. These discussions make a popular appeal because they present a series of logically definite steps in connection with a somewhat elusive subject. The definiteness, however, is more in the nature of a definiteness of intellectual classification than of aesthetic response, and in the case of elementary-school pupils does not appear to lead to artistic appreciation. In efforts for aesthetic education we have sometimes tried to substitute the mature intellectual pleasure of knowing why a thing is excellent, for the aesthetic pleasure, which may begin at an early age, of enjoying it because it is excellent.

At the close of the study of this theme all the associated interests were given concrete and unified expression in the Indian books which the children made.

22 HO\y CHILDREN LEAEX TO DKAW

Grade II Arabs

An important unit of work in the latter half of Grade II is the study of shepherd life. From several subjects equally well adapted for illustration, this one was selected as a center for the theme work in drawing. As a result of the discussion of this theme with the children the following things were chosen to constitute the graphic vocabulary which nuist be built up if the subject was to be well illustrated: a camel, the Arab tent, the Arab dress, ])alui trees, and the general configuration of desert landscape. This preliminary discussion as to just wliat objects will be used to illustrate a given theme accomi)lishes two ends. It defines the minimum scope of the vocabulary, listing the things which are absolutely necessary, j and it gives to teacher and pupils that reasonable justification for the special study of these particular objects ^^llich is essential to any vital work.

The steps followed in the study of this theme j are here described.

1. Leanivuj to draw a Camel. Pictures of camels, and a good toy camel, were placed before the class. Each child then drew a camel as best he could, with no help from the teacher. These results were hung on the front blackboard, and a vote was taken

i

Fig. 11. First Drawings axd Final Studies of Camels

which, indicated the ones that looked most like camels. Through the class criticism it was decided that everyone needed to learn the shape of a camel

24 HOW CHILDKKX LEAEX TO DRAW

iimcli more definitely. The teacher then drew a camel on the board, discussing each line as she drew it and having the children first draw it in the air as thev looked at the model or pictures. When tliis was fndshed slue began again to draw the camel, hue l)y line, on the board, but this time each child drew the same line on pa})er. The line for the hnmp was drawn first.' then the neck and head, then the line under the body, and last of all the letJ-s. The chiMrcn then drew several eaiuels on paper and on the board. AMien all in the class seemed to be having dilliculty with a certain part of the camel, time was taken to i)ractice just that line or grou]) of lines, for instance, the line for the back, or neck, or head (Fig. 11). The pictures and model served as sources of reference by which the children continually iuiproved their own drawings. By the end of the second lialf-hour lesson each ehild could draw a fairly good camel. Froui this time on. camels were drawn freely in all sizes and positions for illustrative work.

Durhig this ])eriod in which the children were drawing camels, one little boy remarked that he had taucrht his grandmother how to draw a camel, and then followed sinnlar exclamations from almost everv child in the class. Some of them had taught older brothers and sisters to draw camels, and others had attempted to teach the babies in the family.

Witli other second grades different methods have been used in teaching children to draw the camel, such as calling attention to the general shape of the body first (oval) and adding the parts to this, or letting the children learn the shape by practice in tracing a hectographed copy. However, it Avas found that these methods took a longer time to secure o-ood results and did not Ijring to the child the sureness which came througli the method described above, namely, by adding line to line and memorizing these as thev are drawn.

Experience shows tliat abilitv to draw one thinowell, although it may become necessary to make the process of learning thorough even in a mechanical --^nse, is an essential foundation for later spontaneity and originality in which any systematic progress is evident. In later grades, when an object at all similar to the one thus learned is needed, children of their own accord will make such remarks as, |"I know how to draw that; we drew it [or something hke it] in the second grade."

2. Making a Simple Composition icith the Camel. After the children had learned how to draw a camel each child made as good a drawing as he could. Free-hand cuttings of the camel were then made. The camel shape was cut by each child from a Hghtbrown paper and placed on a page for his book, which was of darker brown. He experimented with the placing, in order to get the most pleasing arrangement within the given space. The resulting arrangements were discussed. The cutting was then mounted and used as an illustration in the history hook. One definite item in the necessary graphic vocabulary was thus made ready for use, and the skill of the children in this particular could be dejDended upon (Fig. 12).

3. Draiving of Palm Trees. Pictures of several different kinds of palm trees were shown to the class. Their attention was called especially to the date and fan palms. The children traced with their fingers in the air the apparent lines of a palm-tree shape. They noted particularly the fact that all the leaves grew from the top of the tree. They noted also the shape of the trunk. Different children then came to the board and showed how they would draw a 23alm tree. The teacher then showed by sketches on the board the characteristics of the different kinds of j)alm leaves. The children tried to see if they could draw on paper with colored crayons the different kinds of palms so that each could be recognized from the drawing. The instructor found at this point that the tree shapes which had been learned in connection with the Indian work in Grade I contributed definitely to the readiness wdth which the children now learned the shaj)e of the palm tree. They had a definite tree image with which to

Fig. 12. Child's Silhouette of Camel on a Page of his Book

compare the new shape, and this aided them in recocynizinsi: its individual characteristics.

4. Simple Compositions with Palm Trees. The children discussed the shape of the paper most

28 lloW ClIILDREX LEAKX TO DKAW

appropriate for use in a composition containing palm trees as the princi})al element. They decided that since palms were tall trees they would have the long dimension of the paper vertical. Quick drawiny^s were made on the hoard hv the teacher, showing the different effects Avliich Avere produced })y placing the horizon line at different distances above and below the center of the paper. The children then experimented witli different arrangements of sky lines, using brown crayons on manila paper. The most pleasing of these sketches were afterwards mounted on dark-brown pa})er (Fig. 13).

5. The JJi'diruKj of Arab I'ciits. As a preliudnary to learning to draw the Aral) tent, the Indian wigwam studied in drach' 1 was reviewed. Here again, as in the case of the trees, the object previously learned served to in1('r])r('t tlie new form. A number of pictures of Aiab tents were then show^n, and the children compared the vai'ious shapes of these. They traced the shapes in the air and tlien sketched them on thr Ijoard, introducing the suggestions tliey^ gained from the pictures and from descriptions obtained from their liistory work. Fig. 14 shows free-hand cuttings of figures learned thus far, groupec in a composition.

6. Comjyosition Worl'. New^ compositions wert now made, introducing, in addition to the pain trees of the jjrevious compositions, tents, camels.

and whatever other item any child cared to put in. The principal elements of these compositions Avere then discussed, the j^lacing of the sky line cind the

Fig. 13. Compositions including Palm Tuees in the Desert kind of sky line which would be seen in a desert. The fact was brought out that the sky line of the desert is not always horizontal. The children had already made a trip to the great sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan. During this trip, and after they returned, the children had made sketches of the dunes. These sketches and the recollections of their trip helped the children to interpret the desert scenery. From pictures and from their recollection of the dunes they then made notes of the

Fig. 14. Composition made by gkolting Fokms cut fiiom rAPEU colors which should enter into a desert scene. They then made sketches of the desert with soft colored crayons, as illustrations for an original story of Arab life which thev had written in connection with their history work.

7. Pictures drawn to illustrate an Original Story about Arabs. Each child chose the most interesting event in his own story. The children were then asked the following question : If you made a picture illustrating this event, what would you need to put into your picture ? In answer, each child made a list on the board of what he would include in his picture. In all the compositions made by the children, these lists proved of great value in helping them to get the general plan of their picture in advance and also to decide definitely upon what they needed to use. These lists were then discussed, and the things common to all or most of them were noted, as well as the special things needed in individual cases. The points of composition which had previously been taught were now called to mind, and each child made his picture. Fig. 15 shows some of these illustrations for an Arab story.

8. Designing a Book Cover for the Arab Story, ''Tlie Lance of Kanana,'' hy H. W. French. The children discussed what it was absolutely necessary to put on the cover. The first element they decided upon was the title. This title, '' The Lance of Kanana," was printed on the board to give the children some idea of a good style of lettering for a title. They looked at several books and noted the arrangement of the titles on the covers. Each child then cut out of manila paper a rectangle to illustrate the size and shape which he thought the actual printing of the title ought to occupy on the cover.

32 HOW CHILDEEX LEAKN TO DRAW

Several children then stood before the class, and each placed the rectangle he had chosen upon a shape drawn on the blackboard to represent the size of his cover and showed the class where he thought the printing would look best. These arrangements were compared with those of several actual book covers. The class then gave their opinions of these plans. When each had decided upon the arrangement that suited him best, several of the children drew upon the board the shape of their book covers and showed within them the space they had decided on for the