History of Missouri; a text book of state history for use in elementary schools

Preface

Much has been said and written recently concerning the teaching of Citizenship. History has long been recognized as a subject which has great value for this purpose. The desire to make loyal citizens of our boys and girls gave History a place in our public schools soon after the Civil War.

For some reason the results obtained in the teaching of History have not been as satisfactory from the standpoint of good citizenship as is desirable. The author believes that one of the chief reasons for the failure to realize these practical results is to be found in both the method and material used in our teaching of History. Good citizenship consists largely in the ability of an individual to adjust himself to the community environment in which he lives. Any community is what it is because of its past. To understand a community it is necessary to know its History. But our Historians usually begin with Columbus, a native of a foreign country and of a different age, and they seldom get closer to the environment of the child than Massachusetts. The well established pedagogical principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown is ignored. A noted educator has said, "We should begin with the boy, where he is, while he is there." State History furnishes the material which connects the life of the child and the local community with events of historical importance in our national life. The growth and development of Missouri is especially closely related to the development of the nation

In the study of Part IV such chapters as "The Co-operative Work Done Through the State" and "The Co-operative Work Done Through Voluntary Organizations," brings the child into contact with many things that affect his local iv ' PREFACE

community. Such topics as the Farm Bureau, The State Board of Health, or The Tuberculosis Association, will give the teacher the opportunity to use the work done along these lines in the community and secure some real historical research work from the boys and girls.

In writing I have tried to keep in mind the things that affect the lives of people in their community groups. If the book tends, as it is hoped it will, to give the boys and girls of Missouri a better appreciation of their State; to help them to understand their environment; to make them realize that they are living in one of the best places in the world; to anchor them to their own community; in fact, to make them better citizens of the great Central State of the Greatest Nation on earth, I shall be satisfied.

I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the many friends for their aid in the preparation of the work. Special mention should be made of Mr. E. M. Carter, Secretary of the State Teachers' Association at whose suggestion the work was undertaken; of Mr. Floyd Shoemaker, Secretary of the State Historical Society of Missouri, whose article on the Six Periods of Missouri History furnished the outline for the organization of the book, and who has aided in many ways; to Professor W. W. Parker, Head of the English Department of the Central Missouri State Teachers' College, who read the manuscript; to Hon. Walter B. Stevens and the Missouri Historical Society for permission to use illustrations; to the Political Science Department of the University of Missouri and to D. C. Heath and Company for the use of maps; to Hon. Sam A. Baker, State Superintendent of Schools, who gave valuable suggestions; and finally to many of the students in my classes in Missouri State History who aided in the research work.

October, 1920. The Author.

Chapter I. Introduction to the Story of Missouri Statehood 27

I. Introductory Story a8

1. Importance of Missouri's History 28

3. Missouri the Center of Nation Wide Events and Movements 29

4. Free Silver 32

5. The Central State 32

6. Rivers 32

7. Soil and Other Natural Resources I,!,

8. The Heritage of Missouri Boys and Girls 2)2>

Chapter II. Missouri's Struggle for Statehood i^k

2. Petitions 35

3. First Missouri Bill 2)^

4. More Petitions 37

5. Second Missouri Bill 38

6. Forming a Constitution 38

7. The Second Missouri Compromise 40

8. Clay's Committee 41

9. The News Received in Missouri 42

10. The Solemn Public Act, 43

Chapter III. Political Annals 1 820-1 836 45

1 . The First Election 45

2. State Capital Selected 47

3. Appointive State Officers 48

4. Election of 1 824 50

5. The Beginning of Political Parties 52

7. Election of 1 830 53

8. Election of 1 832 54

9. Effort to Obtain a New Constitution 56

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

Chapter IV. Economic and Social Development 1 820-1 836 59

1. Growth 59

3. The Fur Trade 62

4. The Sante Fe Trade and Trail 64

5. Money and Banks 67

6. The Steamboat Traffic 68

7. Indians 69

8. Schools, Churches and Lodges .• 71

9. Manners and Customs 72

Chapter I. General Survey 75

1 . The New Epoch 75

2. Beginning of the Period 76

3. General Progress 76

4. Economic Development 77

5. Social Development 77

6. Education 7^

8. The Aim 79

Chapter II. Political Annals 1836-1860 81

1 . Election of 1 840 81

2. The Split in Missouri Democracy 84

5. The Jackson Resolutions 87

6. A New Issue in Missouri Politics 87

7. Benton's Appeal to the People 89

8. Benton and Anti-Benton 89

10. The Defeat of Senator Benton 91

\ II. The F.lecrion of 1852 9^

12. The Elecrion of 1854 93 viii CONTENTS

PAGE

14. The Election of i860 96

15. The Presidential Election ot i860 in Missouri 9y

Chapter III. Economic Progress 1836-1870 100

1 . Steamboats and River Trade 100 •

2. Railroads 103

3. Money and Banking •. . . . 108

Chapter IV. Social Progress 1836-1870 112

1 . The Platte Purchase 112

2. The Mormons Driven from the State 113

3. Increase in Population 116

4. New Counties 117"

5. Growth of Cities 119

6. Education 1 20

7. Education — High Schools 122

8. Education — Universities and Colleges 123

9. Religion 123

10. Missouri and the West 124

11. Slavery in Missouri 127-

12. Kansas Border Trouble 128

Chapter V. Political Annals 1860-1870 131

1. The Twenty-first General Assembly 131

2. The Convention 132

3. The Provisional Government 134

4. Difficulties of the New Government 135

5. First Test Oath for Voters 135

6. Emancipation 136

7. The Radical Convention 138

8. The Constitutional Convention of i86«; 140

9. The Rule of the Radicals 141

10. The Rise of the Liberal Republican Party 142

Chapter VI. The Civil War 146

1. The Arsenal at St. Louis 146

2. Camp Jackson I49

3. The Price-Harney Agreement 1 50

4. The Conference at St. Louis 151

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

5. Military Operations 152

6. The Battle of Carthage 154

7. Lyon's Difficulties 155

8. Battle of Wilson Creek 157

9. Battle of Pea Ridge 158

10. Price's Raid 159

11. The Local Struggle 160

Chapter II. Political /■Annals i 870-1920 16S

1. The Two Phases of the Period 168

2. Reconstruction Problems. 1870-1876 168

3. Governor Woodson 169

4. The Democratic Party in 1874 170

<;. Governor Hardin 171

6. The Rule of the Civil War Veterans. 1 876-1 888 172

7. Governor Crittenden 174

8. John S. Marmaduke 171;

9. The Rule ol the Young Democracy. 1 888-1904 176

10. Governor Francis 176

1 1 . Governor Stone 177

1 2. Governor Stephens 178

13. Governor Dockery 179

14. Missouri a Doubtful State. 1904-1920 180

1 5. Governor Folk 1 80

16. Governor Hadley 181

17. Governor Major 182

18. Governor Gardner 182

Chapter III. The Constitution of 1875-1920. . . . 18^

1. The Resolution Calling a Convention 185

2. The Delegates 185

3. Background of Our Constitution 186

4. The Limitations on the Courts 187

5. Limitation on the Legislature 188

6. Rate of Taxation 188

X CONTENTS

PAGE

7. The Bond 189

8. The Constitution 190

9. Amendments 190

10. Conclusion 191

Chapter IV. Co-operative Work Through the State 193

I. Co-operation 193

1. State Institutions I94

3. Educational Institutions 195

4. Eleemosynary Institutions 196

5. Penal Institutions 197

6. State Boards and Commissions 198

7. Missouri State Board of Health 199

8. State Board of Agriculture 202

9. State Tax Commission 202

10. Public Service Commission 203

1 1 . State Highway Board 205

12. Land Reclamation Department 205

13. State Historical Society 205

14. The State Capitol Commission Board 206

15. Missouri a Modern State 207

Chapter V. Co-operative Work of Voluntary Organizations , 209

1 . Corporations 209

2. Other Volunteer Organizations 210

3. State Teachers' Association 211

4. State Agricultural Association 212

5. The Farm Bureau 213

6. The Missouri Farmers' Association 213

7. Farmers' Exchange Association 214

8. Organized Labor 214

9. Federation of Missouri Commercial Clubs 214

10. The Red Cross 215

1 1. Missouri Tuberculosis Association 215

12. The Missouri Historical Society 217

13. The Missouri Press Association 217

14. The Missouri State Medical Association 218

CONTENTS xi

PAGE

15. Woman's Christian Temperance Union 219

16. Woman's Suffrage Organizations 220

1 7. The League of W'onien Voters ■. 222

18. Other Organizations 222

Chapter VI. Missouri and the Great War 223

1 . The Missouri National Guard 225

2. The Eighty-ninth Division 228

3. Other Missouri Units 229

4. Missourians in All Units 229

5. Decorations and War Crosses 231

6. Pershing and Crowder 233

7. Other Leaders in the War 237

8. The Work of Missouri at Home 237

9. Food Production 239

Chapter VII. Missouri Writers 241

1 . Mark Twain 24 1

2. Eugene Field 243

3. Harold Bell Wright 245

4. Other Missouri Writers 246

Chapter VIII. Missouri Newspapers 248

1. Importance of the Press 248

2. Early Missouri Newspapers 249

3. The Republic 251

4. The Globe-Democrat 254

5. The Post-Dispatch 256

6. The Kansas City Star 258

7. Other City Newspapers 260

8. The Country Newspapers 260

!9. Missouri's Contribution 261

Chapter I Discovery And Exploration 1641-1732

The Spanish. The part of the great Mississippi- valley now known as Missouri was probably first seen by white men when De Soto's expedition entered the southeastern part of the State in 1541. According to Mr. Houck, he came as far north as Cape Girardeau. Here he took part in some Indian wars and then moved back southwest into what is now Arkansas. He turned northwest and followed the divide running west through Springfield. He followed this directly to the western part of the State. Here he turned back south into Arkansas. De Soto is unimportant so far as Missouri history is concerned except to mark the beginning.

The French. After the departure of De Soto no white man came to this section of the valley for one hundred and seventeen years. In 1659 two French traders, Radisson and Groseilliers, travelling westward from the St. Lawrence, crossed into the Mississippi valley. Then they crossed the Mississippi River and went on westward. The route they followed from the Mississippi toward the Missouri is not definitely known, but it is probable they crossed the country between the two rivers as far south as the northern boundary of Missouri.

JoHet and Marquette were the next white men to see Missouri soil. They passed down the Mississippi River in the year 1673 to a point farther south than the southern boundary of the State. They may have landed on the western bank of the river at times, both in going down the river and on their return.

The expedition of Joliet and Marquette was followed in 1682 by that of La Salle. La Salle followed the Mississippi River to its mouth and returned to Canada. He, therefore, had to pass along the eastern border of the State twice in making his trip. After his expedition the visits of Frenchmen from Canada became frequent and in a few years some of the Canadian-French moved to the Mississippi valley to live. They settled in villages^ on the eastern bank of the Mississippi. Thus the settlements were in Illinois instead of in Missouri.

Exploration. There must have been a number of people, curious to find out all they could about the country, who crossed the river and made exploring trips and hunting trips into Missouri. One of these explorers named Du Tisne^ started to go up the Missouri River. He got only

^ Cahokia, a few miles south of East St. Louis, was established in 1699; Kaskaskia at the mouth of the Kaskaskia River in 1700; Fort Chartres, 1720; St. Philippe, 1723; and Prairie Du Rocher in 1733. The three last named villages were between the Kaskaskia River and the Mississippi a few miles from Kaskaskia.

2 The following story was told of Du Tisne: He was captured by the Indians and placed in the midst of a group while they were deciding what to do with him. It appeared from the talk that he would be killed for his scalp. Now Du Tisne was a very bald headed man and wore a wig. Catching enough of their conversation to understand what they were

DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 1641-1732 3

about as far as the mouth of the Gasconade when the Indians forced him back. He floated down the Mississippi to Kaskaskia and landed on the western bank of the river. From there he traveled west across the hills and streams until he came to the prairies in the western part of the State, He then turned north and came to the Missouri River near where Kansas City now stands. From there he floated down the river to the French settlements on the Mississippi. There were other expeditions of this kind. In this way the country on the west side of the river became well known. These early settlers found that there was lead and salt on the Missouri side of the river. They crossed over to make salt and to work in the lead mines back in the hills.

In 1723 the French Government sent an expedition led by Captain De Bourgmont up the Missouri River to build a fort. The fort was named Orleans and was probably located on the southern bank of the river near Malta Bend in Saline County. Fort Orleans was destroyed by the Indians in 1726.

talking about he appeared to become very angry. He told them he would scalp himself. Grabbing his wig, he jerked it off and threw it on the ground in their midst. The Indians were so surprised that a man could scalp himself and still live that they thought him some kind of superior being and gave him presents and allowed him to go free.

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 1

1. What was the probable route of De Soto through Missouri?

2. Why is De Soto's expedition mentioned in Missouri History?

3. What two Frenchmen discovered the upper Mississippi River?

4. What explorers passed down the Mississippi past Missouri? Give dat(3S.

5. When the French first came to the Mississippi valley to live, where did they build their towns?

6. Where did Du Tisne cross the State?

Chapter II

French. The first permanent settlement In Missouri was made at Ste. Genevieve, probably in 1732, at least as early as 1735. By that time there were about 5,000 white people and about 2,000 negro slaves in the whole Mississippi valley. The greater part lived on the eastern bank of the river in the Illinois country and around New Orleans near the mouth of the river. Fifteen years later the population had fallen off to 6,000. In 1764 a French merchant named Laclede established a trading post which he named St. Louis^ in honor of King Louis XV of France. Soon after St. Louis was founded, all the territory east of the Mississippi was transferred from France to England. When the French settlers learned of this transfer, a great number of them

^ In the summer of 1763 Laclede had brought his family and the goods he -expected to trade to the Lidians for furs up the river from New Orleans as far as Fort Chartres, about sixty miles below St. Louis. He left his family and stores there. Taking a few of his men and his stepson, Auguste Chouteau, he set out to find a suitable place to build his house and store. He examined the west bank ot the river carefully from Ste. Genevieve to a point a few miles above the mouth of the Missouri. Most of the land was too low to suit him. Floating back down the river to a low bluff on the west bank, he landed. Having examined the country carefully, he blazed a tree, called his stepson, Auguste Chouteau, and said to him "As soon as the river is free from ice next spring you will lead a groupof workmen to this place and build a house." The next spring, February 15, 1764 Auguste Chouteau, who was not yet fourteen years of age, landed with the workmen and began clearing the ground and was soon building the first house in St. Louis.

moved across the river to Laclede's settlement. After this first movement of settlers across the river, the settlement grew very slowly. In 1790 there were only about 800 people living there.

Pierre Laclede The Founder of St. Louis Bust in Merchants-Laclede Bank From Stevens' Missouri, the Center State, by permission of the Missouri Historical Society

Spanish. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, at the same time the French ceded to England all their territory east of the Mississippi they gave the Spanish all of their territory west of the river. Thus the country that is now Missouri which formerly belonged to France came under Spanish control. When the Spanish took possession, there were only two settlements within the present limits of Missouri, Ste. Genevieve and St. Louis.

AuGusTE Chouteau

From Stevens' Missouri, the Center State, by permission of the Missouri Historical Society

Settlement During the Spanish Period 1763-1804. The

Spanish during their control created five districts in what is now Missouri. These districts were units for governmental purposes and became the first five counties when the country passed under American control. During the Spanish period the population increased from about 1,000 to 10,000. The increase was the result of two streams of immigration which flowed into the Missouri country from the east side of the river. The first was from the old French settlements on the Illinois side. There were three causes for this movement: i. The dissatisfaction of the French because the country east of the river was given to the English in 1763. 2. The lack of sufficient government to protect life and property during and after the American Revolutionary War while the country was ruled by the Continental Congress. 3. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 which prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River. This caused many of the French slave holders to move across the river.

The second stream of immigration was the xAmericans from Kentucky and Tennessee. This was a part of the great westward movement of the American people which in the space of a little more than a hundred years has changed the American continent from a wilderness in which a few thousand Indians roamed, to a highly civilized country in which are the homes of more than 100,000,000 people. This great movement is well illustrated by the story of Daniel Boone- and his family. It might be equally well illustrated by the family history of almost anyone who lives in Missouri.

- Daniel Boone was born in Pennsylvania in the same year George Washington was born in Virginia, 1732. His father moved with his family of eleven children to western North CaroHna, following one of the valleys of the Allegheny Mountains. Daniel Boone married in North Carolina. He later moved to Kentucky where game was more plentiful. Here he lived for a nvmiber of years and reared a large family. One ot his sons, Daniel Morgan Boone, moved to Missouri and established a settlement on the north bank of the Missouri River about twenty miles west of

New Settlements. We shall consider the new settlements by districts beginning with St. Charles. The first settlement in the St. Charles District was founded about 1780. The town was located on the north bank of the Missouri River about twenty miles from the Mississippi. The founder was a French-Canadian named Louis Blanchette. Portage Des Sioux^ was a French settlement established on the narrow tongue of land between the Missouri and Mississippi on the bank of the Missouri near its mouth.

Another French settlment was located about fifty miles above St. Charles on the Missouri River at a place called LaCharette by the French, but now known as Marthasville. The American settlers did not live in villages as the French did, but lived in farm houses scattered along the creeks that flow into the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.

The St. Louis District extended from the Missouri River on the north to the Meramec on the south. None of these

St. Charles. Later Daniel Boone and many others of the Boone family followed his son, Daniel Morgan Boone, to Missouri where he lived until his death in 1820. He died in the house of his son Nathan Boone in Marthasville. This house is still standing. Members of the Boone family soon went up the Missouri River to the central part of the State to make salt. The country came to be known as Boone's Lick country. Boonville and Boone County were named in honor of the Boones. Members of the Daniel Boone family scattered through the central part of the State and many of his descendants are now living in Missouri.

^ Portage Des Sioux got its name from an incident that occurred in an Indian war between the Sioux Indians and the Missouri Indians. The Sioux had invaded the Missouri's country near the mouth of the Osage. They had captured much booty and were escaping down the Missouri in their canoes. A force of the Missouri Indians laid an ambush for the Sioux at the mouth of the river. The Sioux learned of the Missouri's ambush; landed on the north bank of the river; carried their canoes across the narrow strip of land to the Mississippi and in that way avoided die Missouri's ambush.

districts were limited on the west. St. Louis, the largest settlement in the district at the end of the Spanish period, 1804, contained 171 houses and about 1,000 people. The French had a settlement at Carondelet about six miles south of the original settlement of St. Louis, but now within the southern part of the city. Another French settlement was located at Florissant about twelve miles northwest of St. Louis. It was established about 1785 and was in 1804 the second town in the district in population. A fourth French settlement had been made at Creve Coeur on the southern bank of the Missouri west of Florissant. Point Labadie about forty-five miles above St. Louis on the south bank of the Missouri marked the westward extension of French settlements in the St. Louis district. The American settlers of the district usually lived in farm houses scattered along the Meramec and the creeks to the south and west of the French settlements.

Between the Meramec on the north and Apple Creek on the south lay the District of Ste. Genevieve. The oldest town in Missouri, Ste. Genevieve, was the most important settlement in the district. At the close of the Spanish period, Ste. Genevieve was the most populous district and for a long time after the country came under the American rule this district was the center of strong French influences in Missouri politics. There were a number of French settlements in the district founded for the most part by the French who moved across the river from the Illinois country. The Americans in this district settled on farms along Apple Creek on the south and the Meramec on the north. They also founded some mining villages to the west of the French settlements. The most important of these was Mine a lo HISTORY OF MISSOURI

Breton, made prominent by Moses Austin,^ who obtained a grant of land near the mine and about 1798 introduced American methods of mining.

Cape Girardeau District included the territory lying between Apple Creek and a line running from the Mississippi River westward about half way between the cities of Cape Girardeau and New Madrid. Cape Girardeau, the oldest settlement, was founded by Louis Lorimer^ between 1787 and 1795. At the end of the period the district had 1,200 people. The Americans were in the majority. •

The New Madrid District lay between the Cape Girardeau District and the present site of Helena, Arkansas, but

^ Moses Austin was born in Durham, Connecticut. Before the Revolutionary War he had been a manufacturer of pewter in Richmond, Virginia. He became interested in lead and moved to Wythe County, Virginia, where he engaged in mining lead during the Revolution. He heard of the lead mines of Missouri and went to investigate them in 1796. He moved the next year and engaged in mining and smelting lead on a large scale. From 1798 to 1816 his plant produced 9,360,000 pounds of lead. Austin being a restless man, became tired of his mining operations and went to Mexico where he obtained a large grant of land in what is now Texas. He died in 1821, but his plans for establishing a colony of Americans (mostly Missourians) in Texas, was carried out by his son, Stephen Austin.

^ Lorimer was a Tory leader during the Revolutionary War and led some of the Indian attacks against the American settlers in western Pennsylvania and Kentucky. He was a leader among the Indians. His wife was the daughter of a Shawnee chief. After the Revolutionary War he became an Indian trader, first in Ohio, later in Vincennes, Indiana, and finally at Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. From there he moved to Cape Girardeau where he received a grant of land from the Spanish Governor, Carondelet, in 1795.

SETTLEMENT 1732-1804 ' n

practically all the white people in this district^ lived within the present boundaries of Missouri. The town of New Madrid was founded soon after 1780 by two French- Canadian fur traders named Frances and Joseph Le Sieur. The colony remained small until an American, Colonel George Morgan, attempted to found an American colony in 1789. Although Colonel Morgan failed to get his grant of land approved by the Spanish Government at New Orleans, nevertheless many Americans came to the new colony which he had advertised widely. At the end of the Spanish period the district had a population of 1,500. The total population of all the districts was about 10,000.'^

*' The population by districts in 1804 was as follows:

District

White

Slave

2,3 5^ 1,470

150 500 520 180 150

^55° 2,780

2,870

i,6j;o

New Madrid

1,500

8,850

1,500

^o,3So

"' The census of Spanish Governor De Lassus taken in 1799 showed the following population of the principal towns:

New Bourbon 560

St. Anchre 393

St. Ferdinand 376

Marias Des Leards 376

New Madrid 282

Carondelet 184

Meramec 115

Little Meadows 49

Chapter III

Villages. The French people lived In villages. These villages usually consisted of one long street with houses on either side. The houses were constructed of hewn logs which were stood on end side by side with the cracks filled with clay or mortar. The floors were usually made of hewn

Type of the Robidou House in Which the First Newspaper was Published in 1808

From Stevens' Missouri, the Center State, by permission of the Missouri Historical Society

logs joined together. The furniture was very crude and ^simple. Back of the houses lay the common field. This was divided into long narrow strips,^ the strips running back from the village. Each villager was assigned a strip which usually contained twenty to thirty acres.

Social Life. The people were very fond of amusements, but life was pretty much the same everywhere. They were so widely separated from the rest of the world that it took months to get news. There were no newspapers, tew books and no public schools. Few people could read and write. The French settlers were Catholic in religion. The Catholic church was the established church and no other form of worship was legal. The chief occupations were farming, hunting, trapping and fur trading.

The Government. The government was a very simple, mild, military despotism. The lieutenant governor resided at St. Louis. He appointed the commandants for the military posts and the commandants appointed the ruling officer, called a syndic, for the out-lying settlements. There were no elections, no local officials, except those appointed by the military commanders, no trial by jury, no lawyers, and very little court machinery. There was little crime. If a crime was committed, severe punishment was sure and swift. Cases were brought before the syndic, the commandant or the lieutenant governor. The officer would hear both sides and then render his decision. There was little delay. Often not more than four or five days passed between the filing of the suit and the decision of the court.

The American Settlers. In the latter part of the Spanish period the Americans began coming across the river in

^ The unit for measuring land was the arpen. An arpen was about 190 feet. The lots in St. Louis' common field were one arpen wide and forty arpens long.

large numbers. About 1795, Spain and England came very near going to war. In case of war the English from Canada would certainly have attacked the Spanish settlements in upper Louisiana (now Missouri). In order to get into the colony people who would defend it against England in case of war, the Spanish Government began giving every American who would settle in upper Louisiana 800 acres of land. This accounts for the large numbers of Americans who came to the country between 1795 and 1804.

The Americans were very different from the French in many ways. They did not live in villages but on farms. Their houses were seldom closer than half a mile and they were often several miles apart. The Americans built their houses by laying the logs in the walls horizontally and notching them together at the corners.

The Americans were usually Protestants, if they belonged to any church. All public worship was illegal except that of the Catholic church. Therefore, if the Americans worshipped at all, it was in private homes. The Spanish officials, however, were usually very tolerant toward violations of laws concerning religious worship.