The history of caste in India : evidence of the laws of Manu on the social conditions in India during the third century A.D.

Preface

I have said regarding the scope of the book in the introductory chapter and here I make only such remarks, which I could not include in the book itself.

The second and seventh chapters of this book were reported to the general seminary of the Department of History and Political Science at Cornell University during the year 1907-8. I am indebted to the professors and students for their valuable criticisms made on the occasion. The second chapter formed part of the dissertation which was submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirements of master’s degree. The radical defects of ethnology which I have discussed in the appendix have appeared already in the quarterly American Anthropologist, Vol. XI.

During the compilation of the book, I had availed myself of the material in the Boston Public Library and the libraries at Cornell, Columbia, Yale, and Harvard. I found the library of Harvard best suited for my work ; the oriental collection there, is undoubtedly the best in the country. Professor Lanman at Harvard had allowed me the privilege of using his own excellent and extensive collection.

In the preparation of the index besides those of a general reader, the special needs of the students of society, antiquity, Sanskrit literature and Indian history have been considered and I hope the index would be of some service to them.

IV

Preface.

Yv hile adapting the Roman alphabet to represent Indian words, I have distinguished long vowels by a Za, macron, halted, t, d, n to represent the non-dental sounds, and r<’to represent the peculiar Sanskrit vowel. The letters j n denotes the peculiar palatal compound of frequent occurrence in Sanskrit words. I have avoided all other niceties. In the case of some words which have already become English I have given the current English spelling.

My sincere thanks are due to Professor Lanman of Harvard and Professor Hopkins of Yale, for their perusal of the manuscript and for some very valuable suggestions. I should also thank Messrs. J. B. Lyon & Co. for their careful typography, and Mr. Henry C. Hasbrouck of Troy, N. Y., for going over the proofs.

September '09.

CHAPTER I. Introductory

Page.

Beliefs and attitude of Western people toward caste

Attitude of Western philosophers

Proper attitude for the Hindus toward the subject

They need not be pessimistic

Intention of study; academic and of a practical reformer...

The class of readers I am writing for

Western scholars should not look upon Indian caste as if they are not directly concerned in the matter, for caste is

becoming a world problem

Attitude desirable in the United States

Difficulties in the way of a reformer: various complexities ox

the society and great magnitude cf the work

And lack of force to break caste

Knowledge of the correct history of caste, the only available

source of strength

The project: to write history of caste; method of presentation, other than strict narration of facts in order of time. . Different monographs each covering some special topic would be written. The present monograph represents the conditions in the third century in the Gangetic valley

Justification of presenting a monograph on the third century

at the very start

Inadequacy of the previous work on the laws of Manu makes

another search into them necessary

Arrangement adopted in the book

Motive in making references to caste in U. S

8 9

Chapter II

The Caste System, i. Definition of Caste.

Etymology and history of the word caste 12

Definitions of a caste by Senart, Nesfield and Risley 13

My own definition of a caste. A group with two characteristics : 1. Membership confined to those who are born of

the members and includes all persons so born ; 2. Members forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group

ON CM 4- 4^ On) Os) tO U>

VI

CONTENTS.

Page.

Distinction between caste and subcaste relative and not absolute. Social structure 15

Caste patriotism 16

All castes did not split out of one united body. Principles of division in those cases when such splitting up took

place 16

Castes, a hierarchy 17

Internal structure of a caste, exogamy and hypergamy 17

Caste and class 17

Meaning of the word “ caste ” when used as an abstract

noun 18

"Origin of caste;” a meaningless expression 18

Caste and tribe; caste and occupation 19

2. Theory of Caste.

Hindu belief regarding, the universality of four castes, priests, warriors, common people, and servants; permanance of differences between these castes, and obliteration of caste among casteless people by intermixture. . 19

Beliefs regarding, causes of caste and precedence, lowering of caste, graduations of occupations and animals.... 20 Examples of causes which bring about degradation of a

caste 21

The customs differ according to locality 21

Method of Pundits in deciding disputes 21

Nature of questions referred to them 22

Nature of questions which a caste decides for itself 22

Actual precedence of a caste depends on its ability to

exact it 22

Meaning of the precedence 22

The method of manifesting the precedence ; importance of knowing it, theory of purity and pollution at its bases. Provincial customs regarding pollution 23

Rules to discover the precedence 24

Explanation of some rules 25

3. Psychology of Caste.

Psychology of endogamy; quotation from Westermark 27

Present causes of endogamy in India, their primitive character 28

Endogamy outside India 29

Hierarchy, a cause or a result of endogamy 29

Supremacy of the priest; its universality 30

Some causes of permanance of caste in India, early marriage,

and nature of the people 31

Why early marriage is considered holier 32

(Descriptive literature on caste) 33

CONTENTS. Vll

Chapter III

History of India, 250 B. C.-250 A. D.

Page.

Knowledge of conditions and events between 250 B. C. and

250 A. D. is necessary to understand the text 34

Events after the death of Ashoka. Maurya dynasty overthrown. Shunga and Kanva dynasties rose and fell, Andhras rose to power and took control of Pafaliputra. The Magadha empire lost Punjab. Andhra dynasty ceased to

exist in 236 A. D 34

Anarchy in the land. (Rise of Modern Vernaculars) 34

Causes of the lack of more information regarding Magadha. 35 Contrast between the conditions in Punjab and Magadha... 35 Death of Seleukos Nikator. The revolt and independence

of Bactrians and Parthians 35

Bactrians (Baclrian Greeks) independent for a time, but became divided into various principalities, which fought

for mastery of N. W. India and Bactria 36

Rise of Shakas. Extinction of Bactrian Greek principalities by the Shakas. Shaka settlements in India. Shakas heard

of in India till 360 A. D. (Race of the Shakas) 36

Greeks heard of in India until after 126 A. D 37

The period characterized by close contact with the foreigners and by close relations between the North and the South.. 38 Buddhism was becoming an independent religion. (Differences with the advocates of Buddhism) 38

Economic history of this period is still unknown 39

Economic history of the period that preceded 39

Philosophy of the period. The different schools of philosophy

in the process of development 40

Intellectual activities in grammar, and astronomy. Epics,

Puranas, Jain and Buddhistic literature 42

(Materials for the history of the period) 42

CHAPTER IV. The Book Manava-dharma-shastra

Textual criticism. The text adopted by Kulluka and the text independent of Kulluka represented by Jolly's edition.

Jolly’s edition is a result of far-reaching studies 44

Contents of the book 45

The method of presentation. The poetical elements in the

book illustrated 46

Method of interpreting the book. The interpretation of the commentators illustrated. Their attitude and defects. Their aim was not to produce a commentary for academic purposes, but to interpret the text with reference to the needs of their time and place 47 vm

CONTENTS.

Page.

Condition of literature and thought at the period of our

writer. The new social problems 52

Motives of the author. 1. Respect for tradition. 2. A sense of inadequacy of past injunctions. 3. A desire for systematic arrangement 53

The weakness of political institutions and its effect on dharma literature. Brahmanas, their burden and means.. 53

Education of the masses and its relation to the mode of

statement 54

Knowledge of the motives of the dharma writers and of the method of interpreting their works necessary to guard against doing injustice to the author and to the priesthood. 54 Place of our text in dharma literature. Biihler has shown that our text is a conversion of Manava-dharma-sutra.

All dharma-sutras were sectarian, of local validity, unsystematic and incomplete. Our text attempts to be a work free from all these defects. The recast of the book

was done at once 55

Nature of dharma. Consideration of the nature of dharma is indispensable for the proper understanding of the work. 56 Place of dharma in sciences. Dharma had various shades of meanings ; the principal one is duty. Dharma had

a different meaning in Buddhistic literature 57

Dharma kept its meaning in Brahmanical literature. The

ultimate formation of the three divisions of dharma 57

History of the word shows the vanity of its translation by

the word law 57

Dharma never meant a command. Brahmawa was expounder

of dharma, not the king 37

Idea in the text regarding dharma 58

Inadequacy of the explanation in the text to modern readers. 58 Explanation of dharma. Expounder of dharma was primarily a teacher and not a jurisprudent 59

Characteristics of dharma which make the above fact clear :

the law of preference, the language of the book 59

Maintenance of dharma. Ceremonial part easily maintained as the decision lay with the Brahmanas. The king also was supposed to maintain dharma at the instruction of Brahmanas. Masses obeyed dharma through the terrors

of future life 60

Penances and their use in maintaining dharma 61

Austerities of service in maintaining dharma as their merits

are lost in case a dharma injunction is violated 61

Excommunication and its value in maintaining dharma 61

Date of the author. Two opinions. Biihler places him between 200 B. C. and 200 A. D. I am inclined to place him between 227 A. D. and 320 A. D 62

CONTENTS.

IX

Page.

Arguments of Biihler. i. Priority of our text to Narada. ii. Our author separated by a considerable period from Medhatithi, who lived in the ninth century, iii. Smn'ti of Brihaspati, which existed in 600 A. D., is a commentary

(vartika) on Manava text 63

Bidder's arguments do not offer any serious objection to my

thesis, but rather strongly support it 63

Greater possibility for research to-day than at the time when

Dr. Biihler wrote 64

My argument. Our text refers to Andhras, Yavanas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Lichchivis, Chinas, etc. These references are not interpolations 64

i. Andhras spoken as a low caste ; such a mention was

possible only after the close of second centurv, when Andhras ceased to be a ruling caste (226 A. D.) 64

ii. Probability of the mention of Shakas, Yavanas and

Pahlavas together falls between 1 13-350 A. D 65

(Confusion regarding Shakas and Pahlavas offers no difficulty for our purposes) 66

iii. Probability of the mention of Lichchivis as Vratyas

existed only before 320 A. D 66

A period when all what our text wrote was possible ' lies

between 226 A. D. and 320 A. D 66

(Literature on the date) 66

Author’s home. He was very likely a Brahmana of Magadha.

He shows greater acquaintance with the tribes around

Magadha than with those of other parts 66

(Differences with Professor Jolly regarding the readings) . . 66

Mention of Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas explained 67

Mention of Chinas, and its relation to the place of our

author 68

Knowledge of the people of India of geography was very

poor 6q

Knowledge of Brahmawas in this subject was specially bad. 69 Opinion of our author regarding the sacredness of different places. His treatment of this question points to the same

conclusion regarding his home 69

Personal character of the author. He was a learned man.

His philosophical beliefs are carefully concealed. He was a man of good intentions. He was a progressive man.... 72

(Burmese Pali literature on Manu) 75

CHAPTER V. Treatment of Caste by the Book

1. Meaning of Words.

Knowledge of some theories and of some terms like varwa and jati necessary to interpret the text 76

X

CONTENTS.

Page.

By vania our writer did not mean race or color. These words should not be translated with Vedic vocabulary... 77 (The effect of misinterpretation of the words arya and

varna, in India) 77

Our writer does not define arya. From the time when last verse of Rig\’e da was written down to 1800 the word arya never meant a race. The notion of race is entirely foreign

to the text 78

(Mischief produced in India by words Aryan and Dra-

vidian) 78

Meaning of arya: A man who is not a Mlechcha or a

Dasyu or a Vratya or a Vahva or a Shudra is an arya.

Explanation of terms like “ Dasyu ” 80

The word arya carried a meaning entirely different from

the philological term Aryan 81

The question whether a certain family was arya or not was settled by precedence and not by complexion of the persons or by ascertaining their descent from the invading

tribe 81

(Attitude of the epic regarding arya) 82

2. Types of Castes.

We are interested not in particular castes, but in the growth

of caste system 83

Six kinds of castes mentioned in the text 83

The sources of the doctrines which our author expresses... 84 (Phenomena of the rise of new theories regarding particular

castes) 85

Important verses giving a list of fallen Kshatriyas and causes

of their fall (x, 43, 44) 86

Wrong attitude of critics toward those verses. These verses

furnish us a key to the solution of many problems 87

Those verses do not pretend to explain the origin of the various castes like Yavanas, but only explain why they lost

status. Ideas of the text regarding Kshatriya varua 87

Dependence of status on sacraments. Indian belief regarding the universality of the four vantas, admission of foreigners

to Hindu society 88

Sacraments and their importance in determining the status

of the family 89

Hindu notions regarding unity, universality and eternity of their religion made formal conversion unnecessary 89

3. Constitution of Four Varnas.

Brahmanas had taken a very great latitude in their occupations 90

All Brahmauas were not equal in purity 90

CONTENTS.

XI

Page.

The status of a son of a Brahmana by a Kshatriya woman

was indefinite 91

Kshatriyas. Royal families of a nation or a tribe or all members of a dominant tribe both called Kshatriyas. No sharp lines existed between Kshatriyas and masses.

Kshatriyas were no jati 93

Vaishyas. The agriculturists, traders and keepers of cows constituted Vaishya varwa. Persons engaged in various

trades were considered Shudras 95

Shudras. Constitution of Shudra varna. Shudras were not aryas. They were no caste. Princes and ruling tribes

were also among Shudras 96

Apart from princes and ruling tribes, the rest of the Shudras were not uniform in economic life. Many Shudras were wealthy; the rule regarding accumulation of wealth by a

Shudra 97

The main difference between Vaishya and Shudra was difference of sacraments. Economic difference was not

sharp 98

The society of the period did not differ much from the

present society 99

Shudras not democratic amongst themselves. (Similar conditions in U. S.) 99

4. Occupational Castes.

Inquiry into the existence of occupational castes not properly

made 101

If association of an occupation to a caste would be considered as occupational caste, such a phenomena is universal and existed in the author’s times 102

(Occupational castes in U. S.) 102

The meeting of high and low civilizations and division of

occupations on racial lines 102

Evidence in our text of occupational castes 103

The statements of the text are faithful and dependable 105

Whether guilds were converted into castes cannot be definitely said 105

5. Possibility of Changing One’s Caste.

Doubt regarding the possibility of changing from one caste to another ; verses vii, 42, and x, 42, 64, interpreted ; that

they do not provide rules for changing caste shown 106

Fall from the castes was possible 108

Rules regarding excommunication existed 109

Rule regarding the degradation from a pure to a mixed caste criticised 109

Xll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI. Philosophy of Caste (Varna Order.)

i. The Philosophical Theories. Page.

Importance of understanding the underlying philosophical

beliefs to do justice to the Hindus hi

Four varuas due to the nature originally assigned by the Creator, and their fusion would lead to social dissolution

and to hell hi

The people had no idea of a condition arising after a confusion of castes 112

Theories of transmigration of soul, of Karma and of three gu«as justified the rule of caste 113

2. Theory of Purity.

Caste system not only justified by theological doctrines, but

also by ideas of purity and pollution 116

The various phases of the doctrine 116

Food question most important, purity of the food depended

on the status of the giver of the food 117

Food impure and polluted 117

What articles should be consumed and what not 118

Penances for eating impure food 118

Sacredness and impurity of spots and places 118

Purity and impurity of some other entities 119

( Puritj- of Brahmana mere than physical or ethnical purity) . 119

Sacraments and their place in the code of purity 121

Purpose of going into details regarding purity and pollution. 121

Every entity graded on this principle 12 r

Summary 123

CHAPTER VIII. Discrimination on Account of Varna

1. Materials for Investigation.

Dharma writers advised discrimination on the lines of var«a

and not on the lines of jati 124

Value of the evidence of dharma rules for getting facts about the period considered with reference to the method of legal procedure. Dharma rules on the privileges and disabilities of varttas deserve treatment with greatest suspicion 124

The material helpful to decide the truth regarding the statements of the text 1 25

Value of the evidence of Puranas and of dramas 126

CONTENTS.

X1U

Page.

(Caution to be observed while interpreting Indian literary works for historical purposes; the question considered with reference to the relation of modern literatures to

present manners and facts) 126

Niti literature. The difference between dharma and niti was that the former was founded on Vedas while the latter was not. Analogous literatures among ancient Hebrews.. 128 (Difference between dharma and niti in the later literatures) 128

(Academic distinction between dharma and niti and their

places in two classifications of sciences) 128

Niti as a check to the extravagant claims of dharma 129

A doctrine advocated both by dharma and niti is more likely

to be followed 129

Value of inscriptions 129

Value of parallel passages in earlier and later dharma works. 130

The evidence of foreign travelers and its value 130

Common valuable feature among all these different sources of evidence is their priority to Mohammedan conquest... 130

2. Religious and Ceremonial Discriminations.

The first three varnas were twice born, but Shudra was not.

The different varnas were differently treated in a number

of details regarding the ceremony of initiation 130

Differences in other ceremonies 131

It is probable that the rules were adhered to 132

3. Treatment of Different Varnas at Court.

Lower the varna of the witness longer the formula of advice 133

Motives of such a practice 133

Formula for making oaths differed according to the varna.. 134 Varnas and their eligibility to give evidence in the court.. 134 Eligibility of different varnas for the office of a judge as determined from the rules in the text and Shukra niti.... 134

Eligibility for the office of assessor 135

Difference between the advice of dharma and niti on one side and the facts as presented in the drama of Toy-cart

on the other 136

(Differences with Wilson on the interpretation of the plot of the Toy-cart) 136

4. Economic Privileges and Disabilities.

Occupations de jure and de facto of various varnas 136

Varna distinctions in the rules on inheritance 138

XIV

CONTENTS.

Page.

Rules regarding the disposition of treasures found by a

Brahmana and by men of other varnas 140

Vania and the rules on taxation 141

5. Varna and Marriage.

Phenomena resembling caste are always attended by the desire to maintain a strong barrier between women of

higher group and men of lower group 143

Our text approves of a marriage with a woman of equal varna, does not entirely forbid a marriage outside the varna, severely condemns a Brahmana marrying a Shudra

woman 144

It forbids the marriage of a man of lower varna to a woman of higher varna, but cases of this kind must have

been very rare 144

Different forms of marriage for different varnas recommended, permitted and forbidden 145

Ceremony for marriage differed according to the varna

of the wife 145

Seniority of the wives according to their varna 146

Wife of unequal varna forbidden to help her husband in

religious duties 146

Whether free marriage existed between different Shudra castes is doubtful 146

6. Varna and Illicit Intercourse.

Severe condemnation of adultery as it causes the fusion

of varnas 147

Fusion of varnas dreaded because it would lead to the disappearance of persons properly qualified for sacrifice. If sacrifices would be stopped the world would be destroyed . . 147 Contradiction in our text regarding the punishment for

adultery 148

Dharma writers in general prescribe two punishments, one monstrously severe and the other much milder. The

severe punishment had simply an educative value 148

(Differences with other writers regarding the interpretation

of punishments stated in various Scriptures) 148

Quotations from the text distinguishing between adultery with a man of equal varna and that with a man of lower

varna 150

Quotations from the text on adultery and fornication between sexes of different varnas interpreted 152

(Differences with commentators and with Western scholars regarding the meaning of words “Gupta” and “Aguptd”

in the above quotation) 154

Rules on making love between sexes of different varnas 155

CONTENTS.

XV

7. Varna and the Criminal Law. Page.

Verses regarding the punishment for arrogance and assault

by a man of lowest tribe to people of high varnas 155

(Differences with commentators and their followers on the

translation of the word “antyaja”) 156

The punishments given in the rules above were nothing but

threats 156

Rules regarding defamation quoted and interpreted 157

Brahmanas and their claim to exemption from the punishment of death. That their claim was heeded is doubtful.. 158 Brahmana should be banished with his property while other varnas should be deprived of their property when banished. 159 Rules regarding condemnation to labor for debts — Brah-

mana exempted from forced labor 160

Severity of dharma writers toward Brahmana in cases of theft 160

8. Brahmana and Shudra.

Brahmanas’ boastful claims to divinity 160

Brahmana was not happy with all his privileges and prestige. 162

Shudras treated with contempt 163

Shudras and Brahmanas contrasted. The period when the two varuas, Kishatriya and Vaishya, disappeared was approaching 164

Appendix

Radical defects of ethnology 165

Races in India. Differences with Sir H. Risely 167

Caste and race 170

Index 171

Index to the passage from Manava text referred to or quoted 191

The Problem. — The mystery of caste is a hard problem for a foreigner to understand. I doubt whether a man who has not stayed a long time in India would be able to understand this problem t eveo* ■i£_lie--p«ad» -my book. Even the man who stays in India for a long time does not understand what caste is. He thinks that this strange people who are called Hindus must have some very peculiar constitution of mind which a stranger should not pretend to understand. Some feel that the unscrupulous priesthood have led their countrymen into this snare of folly to maintain their own supremacy.

Whatever may be the case, an Englishman says that caste in India is an interesting institution. It is quite natural that no other feeling than that of amusement should occur to the English mind. He can afford to laugh at the absurdities and contradictions in such an antiquated and complicated institution. The greater the folly in the institutions of the strangers, the greater is the enjoyment felt. The Englishman frames a nice little table-talk, with caste as his topic. An American missionary finds the subject very useful to induce his countrymen to subscribe money to save the souls of two hundred millions of people from heathenism.

HISTORY OF CASTE.

The European and American people who write oi caste do not necessarily do so to bring the folly to the attention of their countrymen for the purpose of ridicule. There are some strangers who look on this question with philosophic interest, but it is very little different from the interest felt by an entomologist observing the habits of ants.

But the sons of India would have to think on caste with quite a different feeling. They cannot afford to enjoy the absurdities as an Englishman would. They have to be serious. A scientific investigator who is not a Hindu would look at this Hindu society without any feeling, as a medical man would examine a dead body. But a Hindu cannot be so unmoved. The more he thinks on the caste system, the better he understands his own burden. As one looking at a cancer would like to turn away his eyes, so a Hindu would like to discontinue his thoughts. But such dislike he must not entertain even for a moment. However pleasing might be the bliss of ignorance, the price which is to be paid would make us drop the idea of tasting .such bliss. Investigation in this problem must be carried on without any feeling. It is a critical moment, a question of life and death, and we ought to consider it, and there is no way to escape.

Those who look at the caste distinctions and the evil consequences may even feel that this ship of caste has gone out of control. All that I can say is that we have no reason to despair. Methods of investigation which enable us to ascertain causes and extent of an evil, and to adopt proper remedies therefor, are making more rapid progress to-day than ever before, and the work

INTRODUCTORY.

which the great men of the past have done is before us, and we can avoid their mistakes. All the attempts made by the previous workers to break this caste system have failed, but it should not be thought that all the possible remedies have been exhausted.

We ought to investigate what the condition to-day is, how it came to be, 'whether it is desirable, and, if not desirable, what methods, if any there be, can be adopted to get out of such a condition.

My intention in this study of caste may here be stated. It is not only to lay down a method for the study of caste and to find out the general principles of the present formation, but also to find how and when this snare came to be woven and to see whether its history suggests any methods to remodel it.

People of superior intelligence and authority have made several attempts to do what I am proposing to do, and have failed. I am not quite sure whether the remedies which I shall suggest would be crowned with success, but I shall lay before the readers the results of my investigations.

This book is especially for the Hindus, but I do not at all expect that it will be acceptable to all. I do not pretend to write for those who believe that the caste system must be good because it was introduced by our forefathers and because our forefathers were wiser than we are and that we are in the wrong if we think it bad. Nor do I write for those who believe that the great sages who gave the law in the past ages were omniscient and that a frail mortal of to-day ought not to criticise their writings.1 But I write this book for those

1 Such attitude is shown by some very prominent orthodox Brahmins. See for example the sentiment expressed in the preface of Arvachina Kosha by Godbole.

HISTORY OF CASTE.

who, with best respect for those sages, are prepared to admit that those sages were men, and that they were liable as men to err, and that, if they have erred, it is neither a sin nor an impossibility to correct them.

The European scholars who study this question concentrate their attention on understanding the present. Some of them see the need of considering how this institution came into existence ; but they rarely care to consider what a thoughtful Hindu thinks about, namely, the future of caste and the possibilities of modifying it. Whether they consider this or not, it cannot be deemed unnecessary for them to think. As long as caste in India does exist, Hindus will hardly intermarry or have any social intercourse with outsiders; and if Hindus migrate to other regions on earth, Indian caste would become a world problem. An outsider going to India and staying there for centuries would remain an outsider and could never be assimilated. To the gradual unification of the world, one-fifth part of which is entangled by the caste system, there is no other single obstacle of equal magnitude. How great the problem before the Hindus is, is hard for the European to understand. The people of the United States, where two castes prevail, would be able to understand the magnitude of this problem to a slight degree. It would be a good thing for this republic if the scholars here would take a little more of scientific attitude toward the situation in India instead of joining with the European writers in censuring us for this institution, when we ourselves well understand it to be defective but do not know how to improve it.