Historical essays by members of the Owens college, Manchester : published in commemoration of its jubilee (1851-1901)

Preface

ON March 12, 1902, the Owens College completes its celebrations of the jubilee of its opening on March 12, 1851, and the present volume is of the nature of a Festschrift. The birth and majority of the College were both marked by the publication of collections of essays and addresses. But these were miscellaneous and occasional in character, and the writers were drawn exclusively from the professorial staff. It is, perhaps, some measure of the progress which the institution has made within the last quarter of a century that a single department should be able to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary by a volume which at least aims at being a substantial contribution to the knowledge of the subject with which it is concerned, and more than threefourths of which is the work of past students not upon the teaching staff. Of the twenty essays contained in this volume, no less than sixteen have been written by former students, each of whom has spent three years or more in attendance on the College courses. Of these sixteen, three are also graduates of Oxford, and one of Cambridge, while at least four have pursued their studies further in French, German, or Italian Universities. The remaining four articles have been contributed by teachers not educated at the College, but who have devoted periods varying from twelve years to thirty to its service.

The studies which bulk largest in the newer Universities and Colleges of England are naturally those which are of a scientific, technical, or professional character. The Owens College is no exception to this rule, nor would it wish to be.

102088 vi OWENS COLLEGE HISTOEICAL ESSAYS

That the historical students of the College should have undertaken the special commemoration of its jubilee is more or less of an accident, and there are many other larger departments which might with even fuller appropriateness have taken a similar part in the celebration. But there is, perhaps, a special reason for the former students of history coming forward on an occasion which is to be marked by the opening of the last and greatest of the benefactions of the late Kichard Copley Christie,1 virtually the first Professor of History at Owens College. The central feature of the celebrations in March 1902 will be the opening of the Whitworth Hall by the Prince of Wales. This structure is due to the liberality of Mr. Christie, to whom the College is already deeply indebted, among other things, for the spacious Christie Library, and for not the least precious part of its contents.

History has occupied a prominent place in the studies of the Owens College almost from its inception. In no small measure this must be attributed to the good fortune which gave the College, as successive professors of the subject, men of the distinction of the late Mr. Christie and Dr. A. W. Ward, both of whom are worthily represented in the ensuing pages. Fifty years ago history was but one of the many subjects with which the Professor of Classics, the late Dr. Greenwood, was overburdened. A new era opened with its separation from classics in 1854, and the creation of a new Chair whose first occupant was Mr. Christie. But history was still combined with several other related subjects, and Mr. Christie was also engaged in an extensive practice at the local Chancery Bar. It needed the enthusiasm for learning of a disciple of Mark Pattison to be able under such conditions to hold up the ideal of historical research as well as of historical teaching, which his successors hope has never since been lost sight of.

On the appointment of Dr. Ward in 1866, Law and Political Economy passed into other hands, though the new

1 Some account of Mr. Christie's work at Owens College is given in Dr. W. A, Shaw's memoir of him prefixed to the recently published Selected Essays and Papers of Richard Copley Christie (London, 1902).

PEEFACE vii

Professor of History remained responsible for the English Language and Literature. In 1880, however, the teaching of the English Language devolved upon a separate Professor, and when Dr. Ward, on becoming Principal in 1889, gave up the great bulk of the instruction in history, the last traces of combination disappeared with the formation of a Lectureship (recently converted into a Professorship) of English Literature. The tendency to increased division of labour has since gone on within the subject itself, and in 1896 a distinct Lectureship in Ancient History came into existence. At the same time, however, it was found necessary to combine with the Professorship the Lectureship in Ecclesiastical History founded by the will of Mrs. Eraser in memory of her husband, the late Bishop of Manchester.

So long as the College was compelled to prepare its students for the degrees of the University of London, in which history was at that time very imperfectly recognised, the progress of historical teaching at Owens was greatly impeded. It was only when the institution of the Victoria University not merely gave history its due place in the curriculum for pass degrees, but was accompanied by the creation of an Honours degree in the subject, that a School of History became possible. The following pages show that, while even in the earlier time historical tastes were able to assert themselves despite all difficulties, the organised study of history in the College is the fruit of the last twenty years. Though it seems more than probable that the growth of the Colleges of the Victoria University will erelong result in a further development which will put an end to the limitations of freedom, and the separation of College and University, that mark the present system, yet it would be ungrateful and ungracious not to put on record our warm appreciation of the good work which the federal University of the North has done. Those who look forward most hopefully to the establishment of a University of Manchester, based upon more traditional academic lines, will not be the last to acknowledge their indebtedness to the Victoria University.

viii OWENS COLLEGE HISTORICAL ESSAYS

Of the twenty essays contained in the present volume, none have previously appeared in print. Some of them are expansions of papers read before the College Historical Society, established two years ago, and others have grown out of investigations made for lives contributed to the Dictionary of National Biography. All of them have, however, been specially written for the book, and had time permitted the number of contributors could have been largely increased.2 The essays are all based upon a study of firsthand authorities, and in several cases unpublished materials have been utilised. Some may claim to throw new light upon old problems; others restate succinctly, and with reference to the latest results of research, matters which must be studied in a wide variety of sources not always very accessible.

In the opening essay it is shown that the worship of the Roman Emperors was no new-fangled device of a cosmopolitan autocracy aping the position of Oriental potentates, but had its roots in the republican past of Borne herself.

The * Legend of St. Ursula,' and its far-reaching influence upon religion, art and education, receives here fuller treatment than has yet been given to it in the language of her own island, while the idealising power of mediaeval tradition is again strikingly illustrated by the next essay, which narrates the strange fate that gave St. Augustine's letter to a community of nuns a place among the great monastic Eules of the Middle Age.

The fourth essay elucidates a much neglected aspect of the great constitutional struggle between Henry III. and his barons — the part played by Welsh nationality and Marcher interests in determining its varying changes of fortune, and in providing Llywelyn with an opportunity to build up that

2 Among those former students who were unavoidably prevented from taking their share in the volume may be mentioned Dr. Norman Moore, Assistant Physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital ; the Rev. J. P. Whitney, M.A., Principal of Bishop's College, Lennoxville, Quebec ; the Rev. T. A. Walker, Litt. D., Fellow and Tutor of Peterhouse ; and Miss A. M. Cooke, M.A., Assistant Lecturer in History at University College, Cardiff.

PREFACE ix

Principality of all Wales which Edward I. could only shatter after two costly campaigns. The financial expedients to which Edward and his son were driven in order to raise ready money for these and other wars are put in a clear light by a detailed examination of their dealings with the Frescobaldi and other Italian bankers, in a paper (Essay V.) which works up much new material, in part still inedited. A very different aspect of the same age, the curiously modern character of some of its social and political speculation, is illustrated in the sixth essay from the writings of the French legist, Pierre Dubois, who dedicated one of his works to Edward I.

The article which follows throws a new and somewhat startling light upon the fate of Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, at Calais in 1397. Evidence is there put forward which seems to prove that Richard II. publicly announced his uncle's death some time before it occurred, and this is supported by documentary proof that he carefully concealed from the country the real date of the duke's confession. The approaching celebration of the Preston Gild Merchant, which takes place every twenty years, makes timely the inclusion of a study (Essay VIII.) of the municipal history of the borough. Full use has been made therein of the labours of Professor Maitland, Miss Bateson, and others on the growth of town institutions, and it is believed that the paper forms a more accurate and critical account of its subject than has hitherto been available.

In the article on ' Sumptuary Legislation in Venice ' the quaint attempts of the Venetian Government in the later Middle Age to repress social extravagance are fully illustrated from the writer's researches in the State archives.

Some current misconceptions as to the causes of the failure of ' Henry VIII. 's Irish Policy ' are dispelled in Essay X., which also sets forth the contrast between the milder methods of the first English King of Ireland and the policy of extirpation and plantation attempted by his daughters. The fragment on the early publications of Gryphius, the Lyonese printer, gives evidence of its lamented author's unx OWENS COLLEGE HISTOEICAL ESSAYS

equalled knowledge of the bibliography of the Lyons presses in the sixteenth century. The appreciation of Elisabeth, Princess Palatine, grand-daughter of James I., the friend of Descartes and the protector of the pietist Labadie, deals with a notable figure much less familiar to English readers than her sister, the Electress Sophia, or her brother, Prince Rupert.

Under the title of ' The Miltonic Ideal ' the poetical and prose works of the great Puritan are carefully examined in Essay XIII. with the object of reconciling the poet's rather frequent change of standpoint in politics and religion with the ' unchanged mind ' on which he prided himself.

In a volume emanating from a Manchester College it would have been unbecoming had local history been wholly unrepresented. One of the most striking incidents in the history of the town is its siege by the Royalists at the very outset of the Civil War, and to this a special study is here devoted.

Some of the springs of Charles II. 's unpatriotic foreign policy are disclosed by Essay XV. From an elaborate examination of the Exchequer records, the writer comes to the conclusion that Charles in 1660 resumed a bankrupt inheritance. He shows how the ordinary revenue of 1,200,0002. for life, voted to the restored monarch by the Convention Parliament, failed to produce much more than half the estimated sum. Hence followed the loans and other financial expedients from which, after many failures, was ultimately evolved the permanent National Debt which began in the next generation. In the following paper the Moravians are shown to have exerted a much more pervasive influence upon the Evangelical Movement of the eighteenth century than is usually represented.

Two articles on Napoleon close the purely historical part of the book. In the first of these some light is thrown upon the early military education of Napoleon by a fresh proof of the influence of Maillebois upon the Italian campaign of ] 796 and its limits, and by pointing out conclusively how

PEEFACE xi

Napoleon was prepared for the task which he carried out so successfully at Toulon in 1793, by his study just before of the closely similar conditions at Ajaccio. The second, it is thought, adds, from the writer's investigations in the British archives of this period, something in the way both of correction and supplement to Lord Rosebery's recent monograph on Napoleon's detention at St. Helena.

As the instruction of teachers forms no unimportant part of the work of the history department of the College, it has seemed not out of keeping to include in this volume two papers on history teaching in secondary and primary schools, by graduates who write from practical experience of such teaching. The latter essay deals specially with the historical instruction of pupil-teachers, in whose education our College and University have of late years taken a special part, both by reason of their Day Training Colleges, and under the scheme for special University Extension lectures to pupil-teachers when still in attendance at their * centres.'

The historical department of the Owens College 3 is still only in the making. It is amply provided with the materials of study in the great libraries which are among the chief boasts of Manchester. To the venerable foundation of Humphrey Chetham, and the thoroughly well-equipped and useful Municipal Reference Library, must now be added the Christie Library at the Owens College and the magnificent monument which Mrs. John Ry lands has erected to the memory of her husband in the John Rylands Library. The College Library includes the historical collections of Bishop Prince Lee and E. A. Freeman. Apart from the other unique features of the John Rylands Library, the historical worker will specially appreciate a series of current historical periodicals, such as can hardly be found elsewhere in this country outside London. Nor are there altogether wanting within the College encouragements to students of history in such endowments as the Bradford Scholarship, the

3 A summary of the past work of the department can be found in Mr. P. J. Hartog's The Owens College, pp. 161-4 (Manchester, 1900).

xii OWENS COLLEGE HISTOKICAL ESSAYS

Jones Entrance Scholarship, and the Shuttleworth Exhibition for History, or more substantial endowments for graduate study in such inducements to research as the Jones History Fellowship, the Langton Fellowship in Arts, and the University Scholarships in History and Fellowships in Arts. The work now published of some who have enjoyed these endowments shows that they have not wholly failed to fulfil their purpose. But the increasing number of candidates in our Honours School makes the provision of undergraduate scholarships in history barely sufficient, and imposes burdens upon the limited teaching staff not very easy to reconcile with its taking as much share as it would desire in the work of historical investigation, especially as the everincreasing demands of academic business continue to make large claims upon its time. Moreover, the growth of the History School calls for further specialisation. There is pressing need of provision for the teaching of Palaeography, Bibliography, and the other practical aids to history, which are as indispensable to those who wish to undertake original investigation in certain directions as are the laboratories of the chemist and physicist. Owing to the want of systematic provision for this need, promising graduates of the College are still in some cases compelled to pursue their further historical studies abroad. Unfortunately, the multiplicity of demands upon the College funds forbids very rapid progress on these lines. The claims of historical research are more recognised nowadays than was formerly the case, but in England the effective encouragement of such research is still almost entirely left to the individual, while in other countries the obligation to promote University education is accepted as the undoubted duty of the State.

T. F. TOUT.

JAMES TAIT.

MANCHESTEE: February 1902.

LIST OF ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS

*% The degrees affixed to the writers' names are those of the Victoria University. Degrees conferred by other Universities are given in round brackets, thus ( ). The dates enclosed within square brackets, thus [ ], indicate the period of years during which the writers were students at the Owens College.

PAGES I. THE BEGINNINGS OP CJESAR-WORSHIP .... 1-16

By EDWABD FIDDES (M.A. Cambridge and Aberdeen) ; Assistant Lecturer in Classics, 1890-1895; Secretary to the Council and Senate since 1895 ; College Tutor since 1900.

II. THE LEGEND OF ST. URSULA AND THE ELEVEN

THOUSAND VIRGINS 17-66

By MBS. T. F. TOUT, M.A. [1892-5]; University Scholar, 1895; Jones Fellow, 1896-8.

in. THE RULE OF ST. AUGUSTINE ...... 57-75

By Miss ELIZABETH SPEAKMAN, B.A. [1897-1900]; University Scholar, 1900 ; University Fellow, 1901.

IV. WALES AND THE MARCH DURING THE BARONS'

By THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT (M.A. Oxford); Professor of History since 1890 ; Bishop Fraser Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History since 1896.

V. THE ITALIAN BANKERS IN ENGLAND AND THEIR

LOANS TO EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II. ... 187-167

By WALTER EUSTACE RHODES, M.A. [1889-92]; University Fellow, 1892 ; Jones Fellow, 1898-5 ; Librarian since 1895.

VI. PIERRE DUBOIS: A MEDIEVAL RADICAL .... 169-191

By FREDERICK MAURICE POWICKE, B.A. [1896-1899] ; University i^u '<£ Scholar, 1899.

xiv OWENS COLLEGE HISTOKICAL ESSAYS

VII. DID RICHARD II. MURDER THE DUKE OF GLOUCESTER ? 193-216

By JAMES TAIT,M. A. [1879-83] (M.A. Oxford) ; Assistant Lecturer in History since 1887 ; Lecturer in Ancient History since 1896.

VIII. THE BOROUGH OF PRESTON AND ITS GILD MERCHANT 217-243

By HENRY WORDSWORTH CLEMESHA, M.A. [1889-93].

IX. THE SUMPTUARY LAWS OF VENICE IN THE

FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES . . 245-278

By Miss MARY MARGARET NEWETT, B.A. [1895-8] ; University Scholar, 1898; Jones Fellow, 1899-1901.

X. SOME ASPECTS OF HENRY VIII.' S IRISH POLICY . 279-306

By ROBERT DUNLOP, M.A. [1878-82] ; Bishop Berkeley Fellow, 1888-9.

XI. SEBASTIAN GRYPHIUS, PRINTER [A FRAGMENT] . . 307-323

By the late RICHARD COPLEY CHRISTIE, LL.D. (M.A. Oxford), Professor of History, 1854-66.

XII. ELISABETH, PRINCESS PALATINE 325-355

By ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, Litt. D. (Litt. D. Cambridge, LL.D. Glasgow); Professor of History, 1866-97; Principal, 1890-97; Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge since 1900; Vice- Chancellor of the University of Cambridge since 1901.

XIII. THE MILTONIC IDEAL 357-376

By GEORGE ARNOLD WOOD, B.A. [1882-5] (M.A. Oxford) ; Professor of History in the University of Sydney since 1891.

XIV. THE SIEGE OF MANCHESTER IN 1642 .... 377-389 By ERNEST BROXAP, B.A. [1897-1900],

XV. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATIONAL DEBT . . 391-422

By WILLIAM ARTHUR SHAW, Litt. D. [1879-86]; Bishop Berkeley Fellow, 1886-88; Editor of the Record Office Calendar of Treasury Papers.

XVI. THE MORAVIAN CONTRIBUTION TO THE EVAN- GELICAL REVIVAL IN ENGLAND, 1742-1755 . . . 423-452 By the REV. JOSEPH EDMUND HUTTON, M.A. [1886-9].

XVII. NAPOLEON : THE FIRST PHASE 453-494

By SPENSER WILKINSON, B.A. [1867-1873] (M.A. Oxford and London).

XVIII. THE DETENTION OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA . 495-522 By JOHN HOLLAND ROSE [1871-1874] (M.A. Cambridge); Assistant Secretary to the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching.

LIST OF AETICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS xv

PAGES

XIX. HISTORICAL TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS . 523-536 By MBS. ALFRED HAWOKTH, M.A. [1888-92J.

XX. HISTORICAL TEACHING UNDER THE ENGLISH SYSTEM

OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 537-546

By THOMAS BATESON, M.A. [1890-1895]; University Scholar, 1894; John Bright Scholar, 1895; Lecturer in History and Education at the Harris Institute, Preston.

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS . 547

MAPS

PAGE

WALES AND THE MARCH AFTER THE TREATY OF WOOD- STOCK, 1247 76

WALES AND THE MARCH AFTER THE TREATY OF SHREWS-

BURY OR MONTGOMERY, 1267 135

MANCHESTER AND SALFORD ABOUT 1650 383

AJACCIO BAY AND HARBOUR, WITH INSET OF GULF OF SAN

FIORENZO 481

TOULON AND ITS HARBOUR . 483

UNIVERSITY

OF

..

i

THE BEGINNINGS OF CAESAB-WOBSHIP

THE worship of the ruler of the State, which was widely diffused in antiquity, appears at a comparatively late date in Roman history. That it did not appear earlier was due to the peculiar nature of the Roman Republican constitution. One of the cardinal principles of that constitution was the limitation of the power of the magistrate. The restriction of the consulship to a period of one year, the appointment of a colleague with equal powers, the veto of the tribunes, the multiplication of new magistrates who took over duties formerly pertaining to the consuls, and the constant and strict supervision exercised by the Senate, all tended to restrain the ambitions of the chief magistrate. It is true that the gods, through the auspices, had duly signified their approval of his election. But this was so far from investing him with divine right that it furnished, at least in the later Republic, a convenient means of depriving an obnoxious consul of his office through a declaration that the auspices were irregular, and the election accordingly null and void.

In such a political system there was little room for the worship of a deified ruler, but as soon as the restraints of the constitution were relaxed such worship began to appear, and some citizen whose genius or fortune had distinguished him among his fellows was regarded by them as something more than human ; and this is most conspicuous wherever and whenever the constitution is most weak, so

B that we may almost take the prevalence of such cults as a standard to measure to what extent and in what parts in different places and at different periods the Republican constitution had decayed. The question, in fact, is one rather of politics than of religion. An additional god in the crowded Roman Pantheon did not in itself matter much. Nor is there groand for supposing that the Italians had any more repugnance than the Greeks to the apotheosis of a human being in itself. The ancestor- worship which formed the basis of Roman family religion would lead us to the opposite conclusion. On the other hand, it was of the utmost importance that no citizen, by successfully imposing a belief in his divinity on the multitude, should upset the balance of the constitution.

Under the Kings the state of matters may have been different. But our knowledge of that early period is too scanty to enable us to determine whether the legends of the divine origin of Romulus or of Servius Tullius 1 had any currency in the regal period. There is nothing in the word rex itself (the ' ruler ' or ' director ') to indicate that any godlike attributes were ascribed to the Kings. The religious signification of the word and its connection with Jupiter Optimus Maximus may have arisen only at a later period.2

At all events, under the early Republic claims to divinity were not likely to be tolerated, nor, so far as we know, were they ever advanced during that period except in a single instance, and this, by its very triviality, assuming the story to be true, indicates the rigour with which all such pretensions were met and suppressed. In the magnificent triumph which Camillus celebrated over the fall of Veii there was one feature which gave rise to loud complaint. The chariot of the general was drawn by four white horses. Here was a clear infringement, so men said, of the divine prerogatives, for only Jupiter and the Sun God had the right to this distinction, and by its use Camillus was making himself the

1 Plut. De fort. Rom. 10.

So Caesar, when he refused the crown, declared, according to the version in Dio Cassius (xliv. 11), that Jupiter alone was King of the Komans.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CAESAK-WOESHIP 3

equal of the immortal gods. The story stands by itself and has only doubtful evidence to support it.3 It is significant, however, that nothing more is heard of white horses in a triumph till the time of the deified Julius Caesar.4

A century and a half after the time of Camillus, the Boman dominion began to spread beyond the boundaries of Italy. Through this extension the fabric of the Republican constitution was fatally strained and in the end wrecked. The system of checks on the magistrate which was feasible so long as his sphere of action lay within easy reach of Rome broke down when he was sent to a government across the sea. It was often impossible to limit his term of office to one year, he had no colleague with equal rights to check his official action, and the Senate was too far away to exercise any effective control. In fact, for the time being he was a king. Now in Sicily or Greece or Asia he was among subjects who for a long time had been accustomed to treat their kings as gods, and who were not in the least likely to refrain on account of constitutional scruples from paying a similar homage to the newcomers.

The city itself from which they came was divine. Rome, in the words of a Greek poetess, was the daughter of Ares, the dweller in a holy Olympus on earth, which would be unshaken for ever.5 Temples were erected to her every-

3 Livy, v. 23. The story is told half sceptically by Plutarch (Vit. Cam. 7) and by Diodorus (xiv. 117), who indicate that it was absent from some of their authorities.

4 Dio Cass. xliii. 14. Propertius (v. 1, 32) represents Eomulus triumphing with white horses, perhaps with an allusion to Julius Caesar as the second Eomulus.

The whole story of Camillus's triumph is very curious. For the dress of the triumphator was notoriously copied from that of the image, of Jupiter in the Capitol (Liv. x. 7), and there seems no reason why special exception should be taken to the colour of the horses which drew the triumphal car. Further, Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 112) quotes ancient authorities to show that the triumphatores smeared themselves over with minium or vermilion on the day of the triumph, just as the face of the Capitoline Jupiter was coloured on feast-days, and this seems a much closer imitation of the god than the use of white horses. Pliny adds from his authorities that it was in this way that Camillus triumphed. May we assume that Pliny or his authorities have, through some confusion, converted a single case into a general custom, and that we have here another particular of the attempt of Camillus to play the part of Jupiter ? Pliny, at any rate, has made worse blunders than this, and there seems to be no evidence beyond this one passage to show that this extraordinary vermilionsmearing was a general custom.

where, at Smyrna even before the Koman armies had landed in Asia, at Alabanda a few years later.6 By the end of the second century B.C., the new cult was widely spread over the Hellenic world.7

It was only a short step from the worship of Rome to the worship of individual Eomans, and a respectable opportunity for such flattery soon offered itself. Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in 198 B.C. had come to Greece to conduct the second Macedonian war, was thoroughly imbued with the fashionable passion for all that was Greek. He had the happiness to overthrow King Philip V. of Macedon at the battle of Cynoscephalae, and soon afterwards, by the directions of the Senate, to declare amidst the wildest enthusiasm at the Isthmian games that Greece was free. Such an act was to the Greeks the final proof of virtue. When it was repeated long after by the worthless Nero, it compensated in their eyes for his iniquities, and was even supposed to have secured in the next world a mitigation of his well-deserved torments.8 For Flamininus no such allowances were needed, and his generous behaviour only confirmed the reputation which he won at Corinth. At Chalcis especially, a town which he had saved from the anger of an enemy, his divinity was formally recognised. Its gymnasium was dedicated to Flamininus and Heracles, its Delphinium to Flamininus and Apollo. A festival was instituted in honour of the Roman general, which was still kept up in Plutarch's time, nearly three centuries later. At this celebration a priest of Flamininus was chosen. Sacrifice and libation were offered and a hymn was sung in which the worshippers gave praise to ' great Zeus, and to Rome, and to Titus also, and to the Romans' Good Faith.' 9

An exceedingly rare gold stater, on which the name and image of Titus Quinctius are stamped, seems to confirm the account given by Plutarch.10 Up to that period only the

6 Tac. Ann. iv. 56 ; Livy, xliii. 6.

7 For the diffusion of the worship of Rome among the Greeks, ample evidence is afforded by Greek inscriptions, e.g. at Megara (Inscr. Grace. Sept. 48) ; at Melos (Inscr. Gr. Insul. Mar. Aeg. iii. 1097) ; at Mytilene (ibid. iii. 170) ; in the island of Rhodes (ibid. i. 730) ; at Athens, (C.I.A. ii. 953, 985).

8 Plut. De Sera Numinis Vindicta, 567 F, 568 A.

9 Plut. Tit. 16. 10 Head's Historia Numorum, p. 205.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CAESAR-WOKSHIP 5

heads of gods, Janus, Mercury, Roma, and some others, had appeared on Roman coins. Up to the time of Alexander the Great the same restriction held good in Greece. But when that king and his successors claimed divine rank, they took over this prerogative of the gods along with the others, and stamped their own heads on their coins. The appearance, therefore, of the head of Flamininus on the stater should probably be taken as another indication that the Roman general was placed in the same rank with the deified Alexander and the deified Demetrius. Such honours were plainly not offensive to their object. For when he dedicated a gold crown to Apollo he called himself on its inscription the divine Titus.11