High School English

Front matter

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Preface

The purpose of this book is to unify the teaching of English in the high school. English as a school study is more than grammar, more than composition, more than literature. It is a judicious combination of these three component parts. The authors feel that their work justifies itself only in so far as it gives grammar its rightful place in the study of English, treats composition as self-expression in language, and makes the reading of the books prescribed in English literature a profitable recreation.

Every child acquires the power of speech by unconscious imitation of the mother tongue. Since the model of imitation in America is frequently ungrammatical, the English of the average American child is frequently ungrammatical unless conscious correction and self-cultivation in language make it correct. It must therefore be the purpose of English teaching to give a norm by which the acquired speech habits may be corrected, by which the acquired language may be adjusted to the language of the writers and ' speakers of good English. This adjustment may be made in part by imitation of correct models, but grammar must always remain the touchstone by which correctness is judged. Even the models must be examined for grammatical values.

In the treatment of composition the authors have sought to shift the point of emphasis from literary composition to the practice of self-expression by means of language. They believe that the child should be taught to speak and write freely out of his experience without conscious regard for iv PREFACE

formal, literary standards. Free self-expression in oral and written language is the fundamental aim of composition teaching. The exercises have been selected carefully so that they may fall within the experience and ready comprehension of high school students. The subjects are varied to suit the needs of the varied conditions of home and earlier training. The teacher must often determine the availability of the subjects for the particular class or for the individual pupil. The subject which necessarily induces spontaneous self-expression should always be chosen.

The chapter on oral composition is considered of special importance. The method used in that chapter should be continued throughout the English course and should receive emphasis in the daily recitation in all high school studies.

The chapter on Conversations about Books seeks to indicate a method for classroom discussions about the books prescribed for the work in literature. The authors believe that reading for pleasure is the chief aim of the literature work, and that the books should therefore be discussed from this point of view. They believe that the class discussions should be familiar conversations confined to topics of interest to young people. They would therefore leave the minute analysis of books for style and structure to the fourth high school year or to the college .class. Such minutiae, if admitted at all, should be purely incidental.

The selections from H. W. Longfellow, Samuel Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Trowbridge, Hawthorne, and Thoreau are used by permission of and by special arrangement with the Houghton Mifflin Company, authorized publishers of their works ; the selections from Norris's The Pit and The Octopus by permission of Doubleday, Page & Company ; the quotation from Locke's The Derelict by permission of the John Lane Company ; the quota-

PREFACE v

tions from Bryce's American Commonwealth, and Allen's The Reign of Law by permission of The Macmillan Company; the quotations from Gordy's History of the United States, Van Dyke's Days Off, and Stevenson's New Arabian Nights, Across the Plains, Markheim, Letter to Middleton, by permission of Charles Scribner's Sons; the quotation from Cody's World's Best Short Stories by permission of A. C. McClurg and Co. ; and the quotations from Mabie's Under the Trees by permission of Dodd, Mead & Co.

The authors also desire to make grateful acknowledgment to Principal John Rush Powell of the Frank Louis Soldan High School of St. Louis, Missouri, and to Mr. Charles A. Dawson, of the Syracuse, New York, High School, for valuable suggestions and helpful criticism upon the manuscript.

A. R. Brubacher.

Dorothy E. Snyder.

Schenectady, N. Y.

June 81, 1910

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

1. It will be necessary to determine first what training in grammar your class has had. By an average class Part I may be completed in twenty-five lessons. If the class is weak in the fundamentals of English fifty lessons will be found necessary. On the other hand, an exceptionally proficient class may profitably begin Part II at once and use Part I for occasional assignments and for reference.

2. We advise that the reading of the first year should begin simultaneously with the work in grammar.

3. The Introduction (pp. xi-xx) may be studied to advantage in connection with Part II, Chapter I. The class should be familiar with the sounds and diacritical marks in order that the dictionary may be used intelligently for pronunciation.

4. The chapter on the Paragraph (pp. 306-319) should be used for reference throughout the first year, but a detailed and systematic study of it is recommended for the second year.

5. The following outline of work covering two years is offered by way of suggestion. It assumes that literature will receive approximately the same amount of time weekly as grammar and composition, and that it is carried on simultaneously. »

First Year

First Term. Grammar 10 weeks ; oral composition 6 weeks ; punctuation and letter writing 4 weeks.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS vii

Second Term. Description 8 weeks ; narration 8 weeks ; elementary study of the paragraph 4 weeks ; continuous practice in oral composition ; sentence analysis.

Second Year

First Term. Exposition 10 weeks ; the study of the paragraph completed 4 weeks; reviews — letter writing, modes, tenses, conjunctions, sentence analysis, 4 weeks ; continuous practice in oral composition.

Second Term. Argument 10 weeks ; sentences and words, figures of speech, 6 weeks ; reviews — verbs, verbals, sentence analysis, and a general review of grammar and composition, 4 weeks ; continuous practice in oral composition.

Contents

Charvb Pact

INTRODUCTION xi

Spelling : Sounds and Letters xi

Spelling: Syllables and Words xv

Part I. Grammar

I. The Sentence 1

II. The Parts of Speech 6

III. Inflection 12

IV. The Noun: Classes and Declension 17

V. The Noun : Gender, Case, Declension .... 22

VI. The Noun : Syntax 27

VII. The Pronoun 33

VIII. The Adjective 39

IX. The Verb : Classes and Voice 46

X. The Verb: Person, Number, and Tense ... 52

XI. The Verb : Indicative Mode 57

XII. The Verb : The Imperative and Subjunctive . 62

XIII. The Verb : Syntax 67

XIV. The Verbals : The Participle 72

XV. The Infinitive 78

XVI. The Infinitive (Cont). The Gerund 83

XVII. Defective Verbs 87

XVIII. The Principal Parts of Verbs 94

XIX. The Adverb 100 x CONTENTS

XX. The Preposition 105

XXI. The Conjunction 110

XXII. The Interjection 115

XXIII. The Phrase 116

XXIV. The Sentence : Simple Sentences; Subject and

Predicate 122

XXV. The Sentence : Complex and Compound Sentences ; Clauses 127

XXVI. Sentence Analysis 133

XXVII. Peculiarittes of Speech 137

Part II. Composition

I. Oral Composition 143

II. Review of Capitalization and Punctuation . 172

III. Letter Writing 192

IV. Written Composition: Narration 210

V. Description 239

VI. Exposition 270

VII. Argument 287

VIII. Paragraphs 306

IX. Sentences and Words 320

X. Figures of Speech 333

XI. Conversations about Books 337

APPENDIX A. Diagrams 344

APPENDIX B. Versification 347

INDEX , 351

INTRODUCTION SPELLING: SOUNDS AND LETTERS

1. Symbols, sounds, or gestures, used by man to communicate thought, produce language. When language confines itself to a definite set of sounds for oral speech and adopts a definite set of symbols for written communication, its rules of usage may be classified and arranged for study.

English grammar is the orderly arrangement of the facts and rules of usage of the English language.

2. The English language confines itself to a set of distinct sounds for oral speech. Some of these are sometimes minutely distinguished, but for our purpose the following forty-eight sounds are sufficient :

21 vocal or voiced sounds, pure tones modified but not

interrupted by the organs of speech. 15 sonants, sounds or tones modified and interrupted

by the organs of speech. 12 surds, sounds consisting of breath modified by the

organs of speech.

3. These forty-eight sounds are regularly represented by twenty-six different letters or symbols, called the English alphabet :

6 vowels, letters used to represent vocal or voiced

sounds : a, e, i, o, u, y. 20 consonants, letters used to represent sonants and

x, z.

xii HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH

4. Table of sounds and letters

I. The Vowels

Letters

a a

Sound

Equivalents modifications shown by words a long as in ale (e in they)

& short a

&m

& long, narrow a c&re a open, narrow it arm a open, wide a ask a broad a all e long a eve (i in machine)

e short u

6nd

§ short, wide a fSrn i long a ice (y in try)

I short a

111 (y in hymn)

long a old short a

Odd u long u use u short a fi P

00 long a food

66 short a foot oi oi " oil

ou ou " out

y y long " try

y short " hymn

INTRODUCTION: SPELLING xiii

II. The Consonants : Sonants tti&Ti

Sound

Equivalents modifications shown by words b b as in bid d d a did g g

M get

J j(g)

joy (g in ginger)

let m m met n n a net n g u ring r r a run th th a then

V

J y a yet z z u gaze (s in was)

zh a azure

III. The Consonants

: Surds

H#r&

Sound

Equivalents l,t,GrO modifications shown by words f f as in fan h h a hat k k(c)

a kite (c in cat)

P

P a pin a so (9 in cell)

t t a tin th th a thin ch ch a chart a shun

X ks a box qu kw a quell qu k a bouquet xiv HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH

5. Some letters serve to represent more than one sound. The several sounds are distinguished by the use of diacritical marks ; as,

The macron as a The diaeresis as a

The breve as ft The cedilla as 9

The caret as & The dot as a, a

The sounds indicated by each mark are shown in § 4 above. The diaeresis is used also to show that two vowels usually taken together are to be pronounced separately ; as, cooperate, reelect.

6* Consonants are oral, sounded through the mouth ; and nasal, sounded through the nose.

2. The nasal consonants are m, n, ng.

7. Consonants are also classified as mutes, liquids, semi-vowels, and sibilants.

1. Mutes are letters representing obstructed or stopped sounds, and are classified according to the organ of obstruction. Pure mutes begin with complete stoppage of breath ; sonant mutes are accompanied by voiced sounds ; and fricative mutes are accompanied by rough, guttural sounds.

Table of Mutes

Class Pure

Sonant

Fricative

th

ch (choir)

2. Liquids are letters whose sound flows readily into the sound of other letters. They are 1, m, n, ng.

3. The semi-vowels are w and y. The sound of w is equivalent to 00 or 00 ; the sound of y is equivalent to e or I.

INTRODUCTION: SPELLING xv

4. Sibilants are the hissing sounds s, sh, z, ch (church),

he-

8. Some letters are regularly used together; they either unite to form a single sound or only one of the letters is sounded.

The diphthong is the union of two vowels to form a single sound ; as, oi, ou, oy, ow.

The vowel digraph is the union of two vowels, only one of which is sounded ; as, ea in each, oa in coat, ua in guard.

The consonant digraph is the union of two consonants to form a single sound ; as, ch, sh, th, and gh (in cough).

SPELLING: SYLLABLES AND WORDS

9* A syllable is the portion of a word requiring a single muscular effort of the organs of speech in pronunciation ; as, come, be-come, be-com-ing.

10. The following rules for dividing words into their component syllables will be found helpful in spelling and in pronunciation. They must be observed in dividing words at the end of a written or printed line.

I. Words of one syllable cannot be divided.

11. The letters of diphthongs and digraphs cannot be separated.

III. The following consonants never end a syllable : c and g, as in ra-cing, ra-ging, wa-ger, re-cite ; t, s, sc, d, g, when pronounced with a following i or iz, as in na-tion, vi-sion, vi-sual, future, con-science, reli-gion, proce-dure.

Exception : When c and g follow short vowels, as in recitation, prec-ipice, reg-iment

IV. The following consonants never begin a syllable : x = -k& or -gs as in box-ing ; r preceded by a, as in par-ent ; l t n, v, followed by i = y, as in val-iant, un-ion, Sav-ior.

xvi HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH

V. Compound words are separated ; as, foot-stool. Vowels not forming a diphthong are separated ; as, a-erial, sci-ence, joy-ous.

VI. Prefixes and suffixes are separated from the basal word ; as, lead-er, mak-er, mis-take, dress-es.

VII. When a single consonant or digraph stands between two sounded vowels, it forms a syllable with the second vowel ; as, wa-ter, f a-ther.

Exceptions : When the preceding vowel is short and under accent, the single consonant or digraph forms a syllable with it ; as, hab-it, wom-an, pun-ish, leath-er.

VIII. When two or more consonants stand between two sounded vowels, all may form a syllable with the following vowel ; as, o-blige, i-dle, ha-tred, peo-ple.

Exceptions : 1. When the preceding vowel is short or accented, as in tab-let, indus-try.

2. When the consonants cannot be pronounced with the following vowel, as in an-gel, fer-tile, in-jury.

IX. When a consonant is doubled, the word is divided between these two letters ; as bat-ter, rob-ber, at-tack, es-say.

II. The sounds given in § 4 and the rules of syllabication in § 10 above, will give a basis for the correct pronunciation of words, but it is important to observe the oral speech of educated persons. The individual word must be observed, and whenever in doubt about its pronunciation, refer to a good dictionary. Give sufficient time to each syllable, and especially to final syllables. Strive to make each word clear and distinct.

Learn the correct pronunciation of the following words :

INTRODUCTION: SPELLING

Exercise 2 Divide the following words into syllables :

12. The following rules for spelling may be used for reference.

I. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, when ending in a single consonant preceded by a xviii HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH

single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot-ter, bag-gage, infer-red, begin-ning.

II. Words ending in double consonants retain both consonants before a suffix ; as, f ull-ness, skill-fulness, willful, will-fulness. (See § 13, x.)

III. Words ending in silent c,

(1) Retain e before a suffix beginning with a consonant, except when the silent e is preceded by a vowel ; as hateful, achieve-ment ; but, tru-ly, du-ly.

(2) Drop the e before suffixes beginning with a vowel, except when dropping the e would cause a c or g to precede an a or o and become hard ; as us-age, com-ing ; but peace-able and advantageous.

IV. Words ending in ie, drop the e and change the i into y before a suffix ; as, die, dy-ing ; tie, ty-ing.

V. Words ending in y,

(1) Change y to i before a suffix if the y is preceded by a consonant ; as, pity, piti-f ul ; happy, happi-ness.

(2) Retain the y if it is preceded by a vowel ; as joy-f ul,

gay-ly.

Exceptions : daily, laid, paid, said, slain.

13* Many English words are taken from foreign languages and have preserved their foreign form without change; others have suffered modifications. - Very many English words still retain a spelling which is unlike the sounds given them by pronunciation. Simplified spelling, or phonetic spelling, seeks to establish a reasonable correspondence between pronunciation and spelling. Spelling is slow to respond because it is fixed by the written and printed word-form, but phonetic spelling is making progress and has the authority of good usage.

Below are given the phonetic forms which are now com-

INTRODUCTION: SPELLING xix

monly accepted, and the rules according to which these forms have become established and according to which other words are shaping themselves.

I. Words with ae not final, prefer e ; as, anesthetic, chimera, era, esthetic, ether, medieval, paleontology.

II. -ed final, becomes t ; as, blest, curst, dreamt, burnt.

V. gh = /, becomes// as draft.

gh silent, becomes ow or o ; as, plow, tho, thro, altho.

VI. -ile final and unaccented, becomes ~il ; as, civil, fossil, utensil, vigil.

VII. ~ine final and unaccented, becomes -in; as, assassin, cabin, margin, origin, ruin, vermin, virgin.

X. 41 or -2, prefer -I ; as, distil, fulfil, until, compel, impel.

XI. -oe or -e, prefer -e; as, esophagus, phenix, subpena, economy.

XII. -our or -or, prefer -or ; as, ardor, clamor, color, favor, honor, humor, labor, rumor, valor.

XIII. -re or -er, prefer -er ; as, center, meter, scepter, specter, theater.

XIV. -ae silent, after g, drops -ue ; as, catalog, pedagog, prolog.

XV. -mme, drops -me ; as, diagram, program.

XVI. -dge-ment, drops e; as, abridgment, judgment, acknowledgment, lodgment.

xx HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH

The number of words to be included under the above rules * depends upon usage. Those given above are fairly established, and good usage is gradually adding others.

1 These rules and others are urged by the " Simplified Spelling Board," and a total of 3300 words are now (June, 1910) proposed for phonetic spelling.

PART I. GRAMMAR

Chapter I The Sentbncb

14. Sounds or letters combine to form syllables and words. Words are the spoken or written symbols of ideas.

15. Words combine to form sentences. When words are isolated, each representing an isolated idea — as, boys, good, read, many, these, books, school — they cannot produce intelligible language. When these words combine according to certain definite habits of speech called rules of usage, they form a sentence and express a thought ; as,

These school boys read many good books.

A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought.

16. In every expression of thought there are two essential elements : an idea about which we are thinking or speaking; and what we are thinking or saying about this idea. When we say, "Birds fly," these essential elements are present. The idea or word, birds, about which we think or speak is the subject; what is thought or said about birds, namely, that they Jly, is the predicate.

The subject of a sentence names that about which a thought is expressed.

The predicate of a sentence expresses what is thought of the subject.

The sentence " Birds fly " has a simple subject and a simple predicate. This simple subject or predicate may have modifiers — words which limit and qualify the meaning of the subject or predicate word. These groups of related words are called the complete subject ; as,

Many beautiful tropical birds ;

and the complete predicate; as,

fly over our tent daily.

17. Any group of related words expressing a single idea is called a phrase. The group of words " many beautiful tropical birds " is a phrase. These four words combine to express a single idea ; but as they contain neither subject nor predicate, they do not express a complete thought. When you add the predicate fly and use birds as subject, you get the complete thought and the sentence ; as,

Many beautiful tropical birds fly over our tent daily.

The sentence is therefore the unit of intelligible speech. Every intelligible utterance is a sentence ; every sentence is an intelligible expression of thought.

18. The minimum requirement of this unit of speech — the sentence — is the presence of a subject

THE SENTENCE 3

and a predicate. These constitute the simple sentence, which expresses a single thought about a single idea; as,

1. Thieves run.

2. Dogs bark.

When two thoughts are so related that the one completes or defines the other, the sentence is complex (§ 210) ; as,

1. Thieves run when dogs bark.

2. The thieves heard the dogs bark.

In (1) the second thought defines the time of the principal statement " thieves run " ; in (2) the second thought completes the meaning of the verb in the principal statement. These defining and completing thoughts are called clauses.

A clause has a subject and a predicate of its own and expresses a complete thought, but it is always dependent on some other word in the sentence.

Kinds of Sentences

19. The state of mind of the speaker or writer determines the kind of sentence he will use. He may declare or deny a fact ; he may ask a question ; he may give a command or prohibition ; he may do any of these under strong emotion or without emotion. Sentences are therefore classified according to the manner in which the thought is expressed or according to the purpose of the speaker or writer, as declarative, interrogative, and imperative. Each of these three forms of sentences may be exclamatory.

1. The declarative sentence declares or denies a fact.

(1) The sun shines.

(2) Our friends have not come.

(3) Mercy ! They are hurting my child !

2. The interrogative sentence expresses a thought in the form of a question.

(1) Have our friends arrived ?

In this sentence the question asks for information. You may indicate that you expect an affirmative reply by saying,

(2) Our friends have not arrived ?

Or a negative reply by saying,

(3) Our friends have not arrived, have they ?

3. The imperative sentence expresses a command or a prohibition.

(1) Come forth.

(2) Don't forget the letter.

(3) Thou shalt not steal.

Syntax

20. Syntax deals with the relations between the words in a sentence and shows how words must be arranged to form a sentence. The Greek word <rvvTa£i<; (pronounced syntaxis) means arrangement. In English the order of words is of great importance.

THE SENTENCE 5

You may say, " See the birds," or " The birds see." The same words are used in each sentence, but the change of place completely changes the thought. Syntax explains the arrangement of words in a sentence, and states the rules of usage in accordance with which sentences are constructed.

1. Write sentences to illustrate declarative, interrogative, and imperative forms.

2. Write an exclamatory sentence to illustrate each form.

Name (1) the simple subject and predicate; and (2) the complete subject and predicate, in each of the following sentences :

1. The table was covered with papers.

2. Did a policeman ring your door bell ?

3. Ring out, ye bells.

4. Benjamin Franklin wrote Poor Richard's Almanac.

5. Who scaled the Heights of Abraham ?

6. " Now is the time for action," he shouted.

7. Our public library building was erected in 1900.

8. Mr. Kipling is certainly wrong in his worship of militarism.

9. Down the field and over the goal went the ball.

10. Let us then be up and doing, with a heart for any fate.

11. Shall you play tennis this afternoon ?

12. The discontent of the colonists increased daily.

13. " You may fire when you are ready," said Dewey.

14. Provide tents for thirty men and provender for the horses.

15. The stag at eve had drunk his fill Where danced the moon on Monan's rill.

Chapter II The Parts Of Speech

21. Words gain definiteness of meaning by being grouped with other related words. We have seen (§15) that words must be grouped according to certain well defined habits of speech in order to express thought. Each word in a sentence performs a distinct office in defining, limiting, relating, or expressing the thought. Each word plays its part in producing intelligible speech.

All the words in the English language are divided into classes according to their part in the sentence. These classes or groups of words are called parts of speech. The classes are distinguished from one another by the meaning, form, or position of the word. There are eight parts of speech : noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

22. Every sentence has a subject, a something about which you think or speak. Given the words John, gardens, fire, you can think or say of them respectively that

1. John / plays.

2. The gardens / are green.

3. The fire / burns.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 7

The words about which you speak are the names of persons, places, or things and are called nouns.

A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. It can stand alone or with other words as the subject of a sentence.

23. In the above sentences (§22) substitutes may be used for the nouns. He may be used in place of John ; they in place of gardens ; it in place of fire. The sentences then read,

1. He plays.

2. They are green.

3. It burns.

These substitute words are called pronouns and can perform every office which can be performed in the sentence by a noun. These pronouns designate persons, places, or things without naming them.

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. It may be used, like a noun, as the subject of a sentence.

24. We have seen that every sentence must have a predicate, expressing what is thought or said of the subject. In the sentences

(1) Kittens /play;

(2) Ice / melts ;

(3) Trees / grow ;

the words play, melts, grow, express thoughts about the respective subjects. They say something in each case. These words which tell what is going on, are called verbs.

A verb is a word that declares something about the subject. It can stand alone or with other words as the predicate of a sentence.

25. The noun, pronoun, and verb are independent parts of speech, as they can form sentences without the help of other words. But some words describe, limit, or qualify the meaning of other words in the same sentence. Their office in the sentence is to make the thought distinct and specific.

The nouns kittens, gardens, ice have wide and general significance. But when you say " these kittens," " green gardens," "pure ice," you make the meaning at once clear and specific. These limits kittens to a particular group pointed out; green distinguishes between gardens that are green and others that are bare or brown ; and pure describes ice, contrasting it with ice that is not hygienic. These limiting words are called adjectives. They always attach themselves closely to some noun.

An adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun.

26. Some words qualify the meaning of the verb in regard to the time, place, or manner of the action ; or they qualify other limiting and qualifying words in regard to their extent or quality. When you say,

(1) The kittens play now ;

(2) The fire burns "brightly ;

(3) The ice melts here;

(4) The sun shines very brightly ;

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 9

now tells when the kittens play ; brightly tells how the fire burns ; here tells where the ice melts ; very tells the degree of brightness. Such words are called adverbs and always attach themselves closely to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

An adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, adjective, or other adverb.

27. Nouns and pronouns not only serve as subject of the sentence but are also used, like the adjective, to qualify another noun or pronoun ; or, like the adverb, to qualify a verb or adjective. This relationship between two nouns (or pronouns), or between a noun (or pronoun) and a verb or adjective, is shown by words called prepositions. Observe the following sentences:

1. The ice on the wagon melts rapidly.

2. We saw him at his home.

3. The men work in the night.

4. Every moment is good for something.

The words on, at, in, for show the relation between the various words indicated. Thus, on tells where the ice melts ; in tells when the men work ; for tells in what respect each moment is good.

A preposition is a word used to join a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence and to show the relation between them.