A manual of photography: intended as a text book for beginners and a book of reference for advanced photographers

Preface To The Second Edition

In preparing a second edition of this manual, rendered necessary by the early exhaustion of the first, the author has endeavored as far as possible to include all the information useful to the working Photographer. A very considerable portion of the matter in the first edition has been cancelled and rewritten, and over a hundred pages have been added, so that fully one-half of the book is new. The number of engravings has been also nearly doubled: all have been engraved expressly for this manual, and, with two or three exceptions only, all have been made from original drawings of the author.

The present edition also contains the results of several trains of investigation by the author, hitherto unpublished. Some of them he hopes will be found of material practical importance, especially those relative to "permanent" printing-paper and to water-proof negative varnishes. The arrangement adopted in the first edition has been continued in this. The first part gives a short and clear course of instruction for beginners. In the subsequent parts the various subjects are treated of in detail.

Contents

PAET I.

Introduction To Photography

PAGE

CiiArTER I. Selection of Materials . 9

II. Making the Negative 17

III. Printing 44

IV. General Rules for Beginners 47

Part II. Photographic Optics And Theory Of Perspective

CirAPTEK I. General Optics 52

II. Of Lenses 56

III. Faults incident to Spherical Lenses . . • . . . 58

IV. Focal Lengths of Lenses 66

V. Photographic Objectives 78

VI. Photographic Perspective 97

Part III. Photographic Manipulations

C}{APTEE I. The Dark Room 107

II. The Glass Room 114

III. Pyroxyline and Collodion 126

IV. The Negative 147

V. Ambrotypes and Ferrotypes 188

VI. Portraiture 190

VII. Landscape and Architectural Photography .... 208

VIU

CONTENTS.

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PAGE

Chap. VIII. Composition 234

IX. On Copying 251

X. The Stereoscope 256

XI. Micropliotograpliy and Microscopic Photography . . 258

XII. Development on Paper 260

XIII. Silver Printing 269

XIV. Failures in Photographic Operations 301

XV. Out-door Photography 344

XVI. Dry Plate Photography 351

XVII. Dry Processes 364

XVIII. Negative Varnishes 375

XIX. Treatment of Residues 379

XX. Photography on Glass and Enamel, and Collodio-Chloride

Printing, &c 383

XXI. Carbon Printing 898

PAET IV.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Chaptee I. General Observations 404

II. Action of Light on Silver Compounds .... 406

III. Action of Various Portions of the Spectrum . . , 413

PABT V.

Chapter I. Photography in its Relations to Health .... 415

II. Chemical Manipulations 420

Addenda ...» 43 1

MANUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY.

Part I. Introduction To Photography

CHAPTEE 1.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS.

§ 1.— Selection of Photographic Lenses.

The information first wanted by the beginner will be as to bis materials, and especially as to bis lenses. They are to form the image which it will be his part to render permanent, and, unless they are right, his work will never be satisfactory. And they must not only be good in themselves, but expressly suited for the work which he proposes to do.

Such a thing as a universal lens does not exist. One combination is best for one purpose, another for another.

For Landscapes the best lenses are the View Lens, the Rapid Rectilinear, and the Steinheil Aplanatic. If architectural subjects, or any others, are introduced, in which straight lines must be preserved, the view lens will be unsuitable, because it slightly distorts, and although this distortion is of no consequence when buildings are not introduced, it will be a sufficient reason, when such are included, for using a lens of which the stop, or diaphragm, is central^ that is, between two lenses, as in the case of the second and third of the above-mentioned objectives.

The view lens has also this fault, that it includes but a small angle of view, or, in other words, but a small portion of the scene at which it is exposed. This defect has been remedied in Dallmeyer's wide-angle view lens, of which the writer thinks very favorably ; it is, however, not adapted for architectu^?al subjects, for the reason already given. / 2 ./

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The lens, whether single, double, or triple, is termed an Objective. The single lens has its stop in front, that is, on the object side, and the concave side of the lens must always be turned also towards the object. Sometimes, in cleaning the lens, it may happen that it is set back wrong side foremost, the effect of which is very injurious. In all cases when any lens is taken to pieces to clean, the utmost care must be used to replace everything exactly as before.

For Portraits there is but one lens proper, and that is the "portrait combination," invented by Petzval, and made by many excellent opticians in all parts of the world. For groups the Steinheil aplanatic is the best lens ; it is often applied also for taking portraits, which may be obtained of large size with comparatively small lenses, at the expense, however, of rapidity of action. Triplets were formerly much used for groups, but are now superseded by the lens just named.

For copying engravings, plans, maps, &c., any lens with central stops may be used, except the portrait combination, which, as well as the view lens, is unsuited for such work. In copying, a stop with small opening will be proper.

A great mistake is often made by those who interest themselves in photography, in practising too much economy in their lenses. One lens cannot be made to do the work of another, except at a sacrifice of excellence of result. Every lens has a certain size of picture for which it is suited ; if used for a smaller size, it will give a less angle of view, and work more slowly, than the lens made for that size; if strained to cover a larger plate than that which the maker intended, a sufficient sharpness of focus can only be got by using too small a stop. And the beginner cannot too soon learn what is too often overlooked, that, where solid bodies are to be depicted, a stop of a fair size is essential if the best efiects are desired. It is only where flat objects, such as maps, engravings, or plans, &;c., are to be copied, that small stops are right.

If the" student intends at first to provide himself with one lens only, that had probably better be a Steinheil aplanatic. This and the Dallmeyer " rapid rectilinear" are the nearest approaches to a universal lens that we have.

. In te^MMENCiNG photographic work, the student, whether he intends devoting himself chiefly to portraiture or to landscape

SELECTION OF MATERIALS.

work, whether as amateur or professional photographer, will find it most convenient to begin by taking views, or, in other words, he will point his camera out of the windows and practise on whatever scene presents itself. He will endeavor in this way, firstly, to learn to make dean work, that is, to get negatives free from failures, such as stains, fog, comets, &c., and secondly, to secure harmonious effects. The first will be soon accomplished, but to obtain the latter in a good degree will require effort and experience. The high lights must be dense enough not to print through before the shadows are dark enough, and there must be detail everywhere. That is, the high lights must never show a flat white surface, but must be relieved by faint half tint, except, perhaps, in some very minute portion. The shadows must not show a black mass, but the shape and form of the objects in shadow must be everywhere perceptible.

Portraiture may next be attempted, and, in default of a sitter, a white plaster bust may be used, with different colored draperies. A white bust with black drapery makes a very difficult subject, and to obtain at once a well-shaded face and preserve the folds in the drapery, will be no easy task, but will aftbrd excellent practice.

Care and cleanliness in the operations, and a thoughtful and close study of results, and comparison with their cause, will accomplish more in a month, than rapid, careless work in two or three.

In undertaking landscape photography, it is not well to begin with views too small or too large. The smaller the pictures are, the more easily they are taken in every respect ; difficulty increases vastly with the dimensions. On the other hand, small prints are apt to be too trifling and insignificant to repay for the trouble expended upon them. Therefore the beginner will do well to start with "half size" plates, and go from that to whole size, after becoming perfectly familiar with all the manipulations. Eventually he will probably prefer to advance to 8 x 10 and perhaps larger work. Generally speaking, the most artistic effects are got with plates of from 6|x SJ up to 12 x 14. Larger prints are apt to be less pleasing, however technically perfect. It is no advantage whatever to have a lens embrace an unnecessarily wide angle, except, indeed, where architectural objects have to be

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

taken in positions where the photographer cannot recede beyond a certain point. An angle of 50° to 60° is generally best.

In undertaking portraiture^ the beginner will naturally (after having just practised as above explained) commence with card portraits. For this work a " card lens" will be wanted, which is simply a small-size portrait lens. Of these, the French " Jamins" are the lowest in price ; they are often very fair in their performances, though not equal to the best English, American, or German lenses.

Lenses should be kept with the greatest care — never wiped with anything except clean, soft old linen cambric, and even with this only when necessa'iy. The exquisite polish on the surface is of the highest importance, and it is easily injured.

Do not begin by buying second-hand lenses, but go to responsible dealers and purchase the work of makers of reputation.

In choosing amongst a number of lenses by the same maker, view a piece of perfectly white paper through the lens, holding the latter close to it. If the appearance shows that the glass of which the lens is made has any color, especially if that color be brownish, the lens should be rejected: it may be expected to be slow. So, too, if, when carefully examined by reflected light, it shows any strias, or hair-like lines. Very small bubbles, or white spots, if not exceeding one or two, are unimportant, and often occur in excellent lenses, though, of course, they are better absent, and, indeed, are rarely, if ever, found in lenses of the best makers.

These brief remarks are perhaps as much as the beginner can advantageously act upon. Other points will be explained later.

I 2.— Selection of Camera.

"Without a thoroughly good camera, no first-rate work can be done, and the beginner cannot make a greater mistake than that of purchasing a cheap one. Any camera that is not thoroughly good is absolutely worthless.

A camera is to be tested as follows: —

1. Observe if all the wood-work is sharply cut and closely fitted.

2. Try the rack and pinion movement, to notice that it works easily aitjd regularly, and not by jerks.

3. Eack the back forwards until all the bellows body is closed

SELECTION OF MATERIALS.

in ; then continue to rack up till the back wood-work just comes into contact with the front. Observe attentively if this contact takes place everywhere at once — top, sides, and corners. If it does not, the camera is worthless, for the sensitive plate will in such a case not occupy a position perpendicular to the optical axis of the instrument.

4. These points having all been found satisfactory, it remains to ascertain whether the sensitive plate, when in place, occupies the exact position of the focussing screen of ground glass.

This is the most essential point of all, and is precisely that in which cameras, even of good makers, are apt to be defective. The fault, if it exists, is easily detected with a little attention.

Take a piece of plate glass of the size which the dark slide is intended to carry, set it in place, close the door, set the slide on the table, door undermost, and draw out the shutter. Lay across the middle of the Fig. 1.

slide a perfectly flat and rigid ruler, a draughtsman's straight edge, or a long, thick, narrow piece of plate glass. Take a piece of smooth hard card, rest one end of it on the plate-glass, pressing the side close up to the ruler, and with a sharp

, , •IT ^ • ^• 1 l^ i The bottom of the card ^4 rests

hard pencil draw a hair-lme where the card j,,^ g,^,,_ t,,^ ..^.t, touches the ruler. Next repeat this exactly agaiust the ruier b a, aud the

. ... peucil line is drawn where the

With the focussing slide, ground side ot the edge s c touches the card ^. glass uppermost. If the camera is well

made, the two hair-lines will exactly coincide to make but one. If they do not, the camera will require to be fitted over again by the maker. Care aud attention are necessary to make this trial effectual, but it is essential to make it with every new camera.

An absolute coincidence of the two lines must be insisted on. At the same time, the experimenter must be sure that he is doing the measuring correctly, and not producing an apparent discordance by careless manipulation.

The next point requiring attention will be the inside of the door of the slide. This is always blackened in order that the light which passes through the sensitive plate during exposure may not be reflected back upon it, but this blacking is often very insufficiently done. It is not sufficient that the surface be perfectly black, it must also be perfectly dead, must have no appearance

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

whatever of shining when held with the light falling upon it in any direction.

If any reflection is visible, and the maker be accessible, he should be required to render the surface perfectly dead. If the owner, however, finds it necessary to attend to this himself, he can mix

Powdered gum arabic 1 draclim.

Brown sugar i "

Fine lampblack 2^ draclims.

and rub them well together with a little hot water to a thick paste. This is to be applied with a flannel rag, and rubbed in well and evenly. But if the black appears to have been originally applied in the form of black varnish, it will be well to remove this polish in a great measure by rubbing with a rag moistened with a mixture of alcohol and ether. If the above mixture shines when dry, there was too little lampblack. If it soils the finger when rubbed, too much.

Carriers are small frames constructed to enable one with any given camera and slide to take a smaller plate than the proper plate of the camera ; large cameras are often supplied with a set of these to enable the owner to take a whole series of sizes with the same instrument. They are certainly very convenient ; they have the objection, however, that they sometimes yield a little to the pressure of the spring of the back of the slide, and allow the plate to advance too near the point, by a little distance, which may, however, displace the focus. Therefore the above system of testing should be repeated with each carrier. This method has the advantage that the plates receive the same pressure, and are under exactly the same conditions, as when receiving the image.

Of course, in testing, the plates set into the slides must be perfectly flat, or erroneous indications will inevitably result.

Although carriers will be often useful, yet, as far as practicable, it will be better to use the slide with the size of plate for which it was made.

Prevention of Stains. — Stains often occur from the absorption of more or less decomposed nitrate of silver from the slide, left there on occasions of previous use. Saturating the whole inside of the slide with some repellant substance has been found useful as a prb.ventive. Parafl5ne or lard may be used. If paraffine be used it must be melted and the different parts of the slide plunged

SELECTION OF MATERIALS.

in successively. Lard has the advantage that it raay be rubbed in cold. Either the application should be made when the slide is new, or it should be well washed and all old stains scraped carefully away. If paraffine be used, each portion of the holder should remain in it about ten minutes, that it may be properly absorbed.

The Cut-off. — All slides should have a cut-off, a wooden spring inside the slit through which the shutter passes, and which closes the opening light tight when the shutter is withdrawn.

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§ 3.— Selection of Stand.

For out-door work, a folding tripod is employed. For in-door work many forms are in use. Those in which the table is supported by a single cylindrical stem are very objectionable, for want of steadiness. The most absolute steadiness is requisite, and a large proportion of the stands in the market fail to fulfil this requirement. A stand cannot be judged if almost unloaded. Place a heavy camera on it, strike it a gentle blow, and observe if any vibration follows.

§ 4. — Selection of Chemicals.

Few photographers have sufl&cient chemical knowledge to be able to apply tests of purity to their chemicals. Perhaps the very best advice that can be given to a beginner is to observe who amongst his friends is most regularly and completely successful, and then to obtain materials from the same place. In fact, the demands of photography are now so enormous, that good materials can be obtained almost anywhere. The substance most likely to give trouble, in the hands of a learner, is nitrate of silver. This last should always be purchased prepared expressly for photography — never from the druggist. Without the best and purest neutral nitrate, the negative bath cannot be expected to work well.

The same remark is to be made respecting alcohol and ether, which are needed of the very test quality and higher grade than usually sold by even the best druggists. The photographer ^will need to have alcohol and ether always at hand to thin his qbllodion with ; for, after coating a plate, the excess of collodion that is poured off (into a separate bottle) is always much thicker than

INTRODUCTIOX TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

the stock in the bottle, and will probably need to be thinned as well as filtered before using again. This thinning work needs to be done chiefly with ether, sometimes with the addition of a little alcohol.

§ 5.— Selection of Glass for Negatives.

Of all matters connected with photography, the selection of the glass is that which is most habitually overlooked.

Plate glass has some evident advantages over blown. Its surface is a true plane; the material of which it is made is generally whiter, and it is free from blebs and other faults and irregularities. On the other hand, it is found that the artificial surface of the plate glass, produced by polishing, does not hold the collodion and varnish so well after a lapse of years as the natural surface of the blown, and that with time the film is more apt to crack and sufier. The surface of plate glass is also more porous than the natural surface of blown glass, and holds back stains more strongly.

In consequence of the high price of plate glass in America, blown glass is almost exclusively used. But in this blown glass there is great variety of quality.

1, A good surface, free from knots and blebs, is important, and no glass that has not this characteristic should be employed, A smooth collodion film cannot be got on an irregular surface.

2, Glass varies greatly in thickness. It is a great advantage to have stout glass; the loss from breakage of negatives in the printing-frames is less, and the operator may venture to apply a strong pressure in his frames where his glass is strong : he thereby gets a sharper and cleaner print.

3, Blown glass varies extremely in curvature. Much of it is very flat; much, again, greatly curved. All that is much curved should be rejected. See also Part III., Chap. IV.

MAKING THE NEGATIVE.

Chapter II. Making The Negative

1. — Absolute Cleanliness.

All photographic work depends upon the delicate turning of nicelj-balanced affinities, which a slight alteration of the conditions may completely reverse. It is necessary, therefore, that the operator should not only follow closely the directions given, but that he should learn to constantly maintain a perfect cleanliness.

All the vessels which he uses must be irreproachably clean ; and, as far as practicable, each should be restricted to some particular use, so that if slight vestiges of substances escape the attention, such may be less hurtful. The hands, especially, must be constantly washed ; there is no way in which small portions of material are so readily transferred as by adhesion to the fingers. In all these respects too much precaution cannot be taken, and many failures, perfectly unaccountable to the beginner, may be traced to trifling neglects of this sort. Nothing will so well repay its trouble as a systematic and invariable attention to having the hands and all the utensils clean beyond suspicion.

Unless the glass be perfectly clean, a regular development cannot be hoped for. Perhaps the best method of cleaning glass is one introduced into photography by the writer a few years ago, and which has since been extensively used.

Provide a large glass pan, in which make a mixture in the following proportions : —

Bichromate of potash 3 ounces.

Siilplmric acid 3 flnidounces.

Water 25 fluidounces. /

Place the pieces of glass in the pan alternately, one at each end, so that their ends shall overlap a little, and allow the free passage of fluid between them. For new glass half a day will be

§ 2. — Preparing the Glass.

INTRODUCTION" TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

sufficient to destroy tlie greasiness. Old glass that has been used before, should have a day, and, if it has been varnished, even longer, or a mixture containing only half the above proportion of water.

So long as this bath is yellowish-brown, it is active. When it acquires a violet color, it is spent, and will want renewing.

After a suitable immersion in the cleaning bath, place the glasses one by one in a pan under a water-faucet, and, as fast as the water fills the pan, lift one end, and empty it. Eepeat this half a dozen times at least. Then take up the first plate, let the stream of ivater run some seconds, first on one side, then on the other, until every possible trace of the cleaning bath is removed, and then rub dry with soft blotting-paper— wo^ with cotton rags, as so universally directed. Cloths always leave fluff, which has to be carefully brushed away afterwards — paper does not.

It is usual to roughen the edges of the plates, and thus diminish the chances of having the film slip off during the work, and also to lessen the risk of cutting the fingers. A coarse file is commonly used, but the writer greatly prefers a coarse whetstone, such as is used for sharpening scythes. It cuts faster and more evenly, doing better work in less time, and is good until wholly worn away, whereas the file quickly becomes clogged and smooth. The whetstone, or file, is to be drawn three or four times along each edge, holding it so that it shall rest more on the face than on the edge. The roughing should precede the cleaning. After cleaning the glass must be handled as little as possible ; its face must never be touched by a finger, or there will probably be a finger mark developed on the negative. Grlass when cleaned should be laid away, each piece in a fold of soft clean blotting-paper, in which it may lie even for months without injury, if set in a box kept out of the reach of dust and vapors. The writer has used glass which, after cleaning with the bichromate bath, had been kept eighteen months; it gave good results. When glass is to be kept for more than a few days, it should rest on its edges, and not lie flat, otherwise there is a possibility (the writer has seen this happen) that folds in the paper between two sheets, may show in the development.

Nitric acid may be used for cleaning, or caustic alkali ; but the above is not only the easiest and most economical, but is perhaps the only one with which an old picture never reappears in the development of a new one.

MAKING THE NEGATIVE.

Plates that have been varnished are necessarily more difficult to clean. They will need a stronger bath and a longer immersion in it. Or the varnish may be easily and completely removed by soaking in a bath of caustic soda. It is best to wait till a quantity accumulate, and then to dissolve a pound of " concentrated lye" in a half pailful of hot water, and put the plates in, one by one, leaving them in till they easily rub clean ; after rinsing off, put them into the bichromate bath for a few hours. When common photographic glass is used, varnished plates scarcely repay for the trouble of cleaning, especially as, if the cleaning is not done carefully, the negatives will not be satisfactory.

§ 3.— The Negative Bath.

' Of all that the photographer works with, nothing exceeds in importance the negative bath. Its preparation is exceedingly easy, and, if thoroughly good nitrate of silver be used, it cannot fail to work well, if no mistake or oversight has been made in its preparation.

A vertical glass lath is to be procured ; there is none other which is perfectly safe. In a porcelain bath, if there is the slightest flaw in the glazing inside, the solution will penetrate it, and gradually saturate the whole of the porous biscuit which makes the body of the vessel, between the inside and outside glazing. This not only involves a great loss* of expensive silver solution, but after a time the outside glazing also probably cracks, and some day the operator finds his bath empty. In many cases porcelain baths last for years, but there is never a certainty about them, as there is with glass. The "photographic ware" has been much complained of in the same way.

A glass bath requires to be supported in some way, and the simplest is to place it in a box sufficiently wide to give the bath a proper inclination, laying a wooden or pasteboard cover over it, when not in use, to exclude the dust; or boxes may be purchased provided with covers, and with an iron foot at the back to enable the box to stand at a proper inclination (see beyond, Fig. 6, p. 24).

A "whole-size" bath, for plates 6|x8^-, will be found a convenient one for the beginner, as, even if much smaller plates are worked with, it is not worth while to use a smaller bath — it holds, too little solution and' changes too rapidly. The " whole-size"

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

baths require about 25 ounces of solution to charge them. This solution is to be made as follows : —

Dissolve 2 ounces of nitrate of silver in 25 ounces of water, which need not be distilled water. Leave the solution in a glass bottle in the sunlight for several hours, or in cloudy weather for a day or two near a southerly window. Separate this into two equal portions. Take 3 grains of iodide of potassium or iodide of ammonium, dissolve it in a few drops of water, and pour it into one of the halves ; stir up well and let stand half an hour, or longer. Filter the other half into a clean bottle, and then filter into it the second half, that to which the iodide of potassium was added.

Observe: The two portions are not to be mixed until after they are filtered, and the portion to which the iodide was added is to be filtered last, if the same filter be used for both.

Next, take a clean six-ounce stoppered vial ; place in it one fluidrachm^ of pure nitric acid, fill it up with water, and label it " Dilute nitric acid, ten minims to the ounce." To the twenty-five ounce bath add one flaidrachm of this dilute acid.

If this does not prevent fogging, the fault is probably in the collodion. It will therefore be advisable to add to it enough tincture of iodine to bring it up to a light sherry wine color. Tincture of iodine (which must not be confounded with " Lugol's Solution") may be purchased ready made, or be prepared by dissolving a quarter of an ounce -of iodine in four ounces of alcohol ; it should be prepared and kept on hand, as it does better after standing for a time. If with a collodion of a sherry wine color, and the acidification already mentioned, which is in the proportion of about a drop of nitric acid to twenty ounces of bath, the fogging continues, it shows that there is something very much wrong. The operator may try the effect of a further addition of acid, but he may be assured that either he has made some mistake, or is working with bad materials. More acid may force a clean picture, but will fail to give delicately graded shadows and half tints. (See also Chapter on Failures.)