A manual for teaching model-drawing : from solid forms, the models founded on those of M. Dupuis : combined with a popular view of perspective, and adapted to the elementary instruction of classes in schools and public institutions

Front matter

MANUAL

OP

MODEL-DRAWING.

Preface

This Work being designed to introduce a Method of Teaching Drawing, in a great measure new, it has been deemed proper to commence with a short account of the various methods hitherto adopted, and to bring under consideration the reasons which countenance the introduction of the plan herein proposed.

The fundamental principles to which it has been the endeavour of the Author strictly to conform may, however, be stated here in few words.

First, — The theoretical investigations and the practical exercises are presented, each according to an exact synthetical progression, the pupil being supposed, at the beginning, not to possess the least knowledge of drawing or perspective.

Secondly, — The pupil is to draw all the exercises of the Course solely from models or actual forms.

vi

PREFACE.

This second condition made it necessary to devise a system of teaching perspective, in which the science should be divested of its abstract form, and made applicable to the immediate practice of the Course. Ocular demonstrations, combined with the simplest reasoning, have been found capable of accomplishing this purpose, so that children and others altogether unacquainted with geometry may by this method be taught the theory and practice of perspective.

CHAPTER I. Methods of Teaching Drawing

Page

Application of drawing to the arts of industry . . 4 Advantage of drawing in the study of science . . 6 Drawing a means of diffusing scientific knowledge . . 6 Drawing eminently useful to teachers and professors . 7 Drawing formerly cultivated among artisans ... 9 Erroneous opinion that drawing may not be learned by all 10 Causes of the general want of a knowledge of drawing . 1 1 Essential principles of sound method in elementary instruction . . • • • • • • 12

. Drawing from copies . . • • • • .14

Drawing from copies a delusive kind of industry . . 15 Drawing from copies conveys no knowledge of the laws of

perspective . . . • . . • .16 Drawing from nature inculcates habits of observation and

of contemplation . . . . . . . 18

Education of the eye valuable to all 19

Knowledge of form, and of the laws of perspective,

Perspective, as an abstract science, unsuited for popular or

elementary instruction . . . • . • .21 Strict rules of perspective inapplicable to the practice of

drawing from nature ...... 22

Perspective may be taught without the intervention of strict

mathematical investigations . . . . .22

Vlll CONTENTS.

Page

Instance of the labour required to finish a drawing by the

rules of mathematical perspective .... 23

Exceptional cases . . . . -. . • . .24

Too frequent departure from the synthetic method . 26 Attention at first too exclusively directed to details . . 28 Drawing at once from life, proposed by some as a substitute

for drawing from copies ...... 29

System of drawing at once from life considered . . .30 Similar proposition to draw at once from antique statues 31 Proposal to draw at first from simple geometrical forms . 32 Advantages of this method considered .... 33

This Treatise chiefly designed for the use of teachers . . 36 The elementary course does not aim at the formation of

artists .38

CHAPTER II. Principles of Perspective

Styles of drawing ....... 41

Solid forms to be represented on a surface . . . .42

Appearances of objects vary with change of position . 42 Distinction between a geometrical and a perspective

representation . . . . . . . .43

Objects, how seen: rays of light proceed in every

Rays of light proceed from every part of a visible surface . 46 Rays of light proceed in straight lines .... 46

CHAPTER III. Analysis of the direction of rays of light proceeding to

Of the visual angle ..... .52

Relative magnitude estimated by the size of the visual

angle 54

Of foreshortening . 55

CONTENTS.

ix

CHAPTER IV. J'age

Of the effect of distance on the size of the visual angle . 61

Experience teaches us to correct optical illusions . . 64 Actual and apparent directions of lines not always the

same 65

Influences of position on the directions of lines stated . 76

Observations suggested by the preceding investigations . 77

CHAPTER V. Application of the foregoing Principles to Practice

Preliminary remarks . . . ... . . 81

Positions of straight lines defined ..... 83

Practice from Wire Models.

Model. A straight line; its varying appearance, caused by varying positions, explained . . . . .87 Hints on the inspection of the drawings ... 91

CHAPTER VI. Practice with wire models, continued . . . .93

Angles defined . ... . . . . 93

Model. Two straight lines forming a right angle: its varying appearance, caused by varying positions,

Model. A straight line raised at right angles from the

middle of another straight line .... 100 Model. Two straight lines bisecting each other at right

angles . .101

Triangles defined by reference to the angles . . . 102

Model. A right-angled triangle 103

Triangles defined by reference to the sides . . .105 Model. An equilateral triangle » . . . log

Approximate estimate of diminution in apparent length of

lines caused by increase in their distance from the eye 109 Model. An isosceles triangle 112

X

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII. Further Investigation of Principles of Perspective

Page

Appearances of drawings alter with change of position . 1 15 Position of the eye with reference to the drawing should

be determined \\q

Picture or drawing supposed to be in an upright position . 116 Drawing supposed to be interposed between the eye and

the object represented . . . . . . nj

Drawing supposed to be placed square to the eye . .118

Limit to the extent of prospect embraced at one view . 119

Method of determining the extent of the field of vision . 119

Representation of lines parallel to the picture . . 123 Distinction made between the appearance of objects and

their representation on a fiat surface . . .126

Further remarks on the apparent directions of lines . 129 Difficulty of representing a plane inclining downwards

from the spectator's position 130

Effect of difference of elevation on the apparent direction of

lines 132

Effect of difference of distance on the apparent direction of

lines 134

Effect of distance and obliquity combined on the apparent

length of lines ; 135

CHAPTER VIII. Practice from Wire Models — Continued

Four-sided right-lined figures defined .... 139 Model. A square 140

CONTENTS. Xi

CHAPTER IX. Mechanical Aids in Perspective Drawing

Page

Comparison of relative size of visual angles . . .144 Illustrations of method of comparison . . . . 146 Precautions necessary in measuring visual angles . . 148 The draughtsman to proceed from the whole to the

parts 149

The sight-rule 151

Mode of estimating the apparent inclination of lines by the

sight-rule . . . • • • • .151 Mode of estimating the apparent inclination of lines by

the porte-crayon . . . . . . • 153

Reason for not adopting these mechanical aids at an earlier

stage of the course 154

CHAPTER X. Practice from Wire Models— Continued

Models. The pentagon 157

The hexagon 159

The heptagon 160

The octagon 161

The decagon . . . . • • 162 The circle and square combined . . .163

The circle 167

A star 168

Additional exercises in the drawing of curved lines 170

CHAPTER XI. Solid Forms

Regular and irregular solids defined . . . .175 Practice in outline drawing from the solid models . 178

CHAPTER XII. Of Shaded Drawings

Page

Paper 183

Of drawing the outline . . . . . . .184

Mode of shading with the stump . . . . . 186

Beginners inclined to shade too hastily . . . .187

Uses of the leather and paper stumps . . . . 188

Hatchings ... • . .190

Strength and general direction of hatchings . . . 191 Drawings to be generally shaded from top to bottom . 192

CHAPTER XIII. Of Light and Shade

Outline alone insufficient for the representation of

Certain effects of light and shade observable in nature . 194

Aerial perspective 195

No line visible independently of the adjoining surfaces . 197

CHAPTER XIV. Shades and Shadows

Distinction between shade and shadow . . . 201

Shadows darker than adjoining shades .... 202

Reflected light 202

Character of shadows in the broad light of day. . . 205

ERRATUM.

Page 110, In the Diagram at top of page, for \, read J.

Part The First. Linear Perspective

MODEL-DRAWING.

Chapter I. METHODS OF TEACHING DRAWING

The comparatively rare possession in England of the power of Drawing implies, either an indifference to its acquirement, arising from a prevailing doubt of its usefulness, or a belief, founded it may be on experience, that it is an art so difficult as to be accessible only to a gifted few. The deficiency we notice may be ascribed to both these causes. As to the first, it is true that attention has of late been directed to the formation and encouragement of Schools of Design in the metropolis, and some of the important provincial towns; but all efforts to this end have been hitherto limited to the cultivation of drawing for a single special purpose — namely, its application to the improvement of patterns for manufactures.

Independently of this most important but special object, the art, except when cultivated as a profession, has been too generally considered in the light of a mere accomplishment, and not as a branch of knowledge possessing claims to a cultivation almost as universal as writing, to which it is

B 2 closely allied, — a cultivation from which all members of society would derive real and substantial benefits.

Whatever tends to improve the knowledge, and to civilize the mass of the people, will, if properly directed and controlled, improve the tone of their moral character. On this part of the subject, it were out of place to dilate in this Introduction, which will be confined to an examination of the question under an industrial and scientific point of view, — as influencing the physical well-being of the working classes, giving increased perfection to the products of industry, and lending a valuable assistance to the learned in the pursuit of science.

Application of Drawing to the Arts of Industry.

As regards the application of drawing to the arts of industry, or those that minister to the supply of our physical wants, there is scarcely a common trade that does not present constantly recurring opportunities for its employment.

Artificers, such as builders, masons, carpenters, smiths, and a host of others whose business consists in the performance of works of construction, cannot, if they do not understand plans and drawings, execute correctly the orders which they receive; and the imperfect knowledge or total ignorance of many of them, in this respect, frequently causes mistakes or misapprehensions which are expensive and tedious to remedy.

METHODS OF TEACHING DRAWING.

decorators in other branches, too frequently learn, only after years of blundering, to understand (and that but imperfectly) the drawings and sketches in which the views of their employers are embodied. Machinists, millwrights, and ship-carpenters stand more highly in need of the assistance of drawings; as do also watchmakers, opticians, philosophical instrument makers, and others who have not only to superintend the construction of the most delicate instruments, but are likewise called upon, from the constant recurrence of new inventions, either to refer to the drawings of others, or to prepare drawings of details for the guidance of their assistants.

To those engaged in the pursuits of the civil or mechanical engineer, whether as principals or subordinates, drawing is a kind of indispensable language; and how many admirable inventions and useful contrivances may not have been left without a record, solely from the prevailing ignorance of that form of language. Invention itself is checked by the want of skill in the inventor to communicate by means of drawings the details of his combinations.

" Whoever has been accustomed to see the plans of houses and farm buildings, or of public buildings of an humble character in the country, must know the prevailing deficiency of our workmen in the art of drawing, where it is so closely connected with the comfort of domestic life, and is essential to the skilful performance of public works."

" In all those manufactures of which taste is a principal element, our neighbours, the French, are greatly our superiors, solely, we believe, because the eyes and hands of all classes are practised from a very early age in the arts of design Elementary schools for the cultivation

of drawing exist in Paris, and in many of the chief towns of France; these schools are the sources of the taste and skill in the decorative arts, and in all manufactures of which taste is a prominent element, and which have made the designs for the calico-printers, the silk and ribbon looms, the papers, and similar works of art in France, so superior in taste to those of this country, notwithstanding the superiority of our manufactories in mechanical combinations

Advantage of Drawing in the Study of Science.

Again, if we consider the study or advancement of the physical and natural sciences, we find that drawing is an indispensable auxiliary to their cultivation.

Astronomy, geology, geography, anatomy, surgery, zoology, botany — in short, almost the entire range of the natural and experimental sciences require the constant aid of drawing.

Drawing a means of diffusing Scientific Knowledge.

In one of the most eloquent of modern works on sciencef, an earnest hope is expressed that the elements at least of the scientific knowledge which has been hitherto limited to a very narrow sphere, should be made accessible to all, "were it only that they may be more thoroughly examined into, and more effectually developed in their consequences,

* Dr. Kay's Report on Training School, page 242. t Sir J. F. W. Hbrschel's Discourse on the Sludy of Natural Philosophy.

METHODS OP TEACHING DRAWING. 7 and receive that ductility and plastic quality which the pressure of minds of all descriptions, constantly moulding them to their purposes, can alone bestow; there is no body of knowledge so complete, but that it may acquire accession, or so free from error, but that it may receive correction, in passing through the minds of millions." The acquiring and imparting of this knowledge, together with its probable additions and improvements, would be facilitated and hastened in a material degree, were drawing to lend its powerful aid. "If we consider language according to the design thereof, namely, apt signs for the communication of thoughts*," then can drawing fairly lay claim to that title. It is the language of form, and by it alone can exact ideas of the shape and size of objects be expressed. It offers moreover, this advantage, that it is intelligible to all and in all countries alike, — a universal language.

Drawing eminently useful to Teachers and Professors.

It would be tedious to enumerate with more detail the various branches of knowledge to which drawing must necessarily be applied, when it is desired to cultivate them with success; but we must not omit to point out the great benefits that all teachers and professors would derive from the possession of sufficient skill to draw with correctness and rapidity the figures referred to in their demonstrations. In teaching the elements of geometry,

* Holder.

there prevails an almost universal habit of neglecting precision in the figures, assuming them to be correct, and dwelling on the demonstration alone. This may offer a useful exercise to the advanced student; but, with a young beginner, figures drawn incorrectly tend to confuse and perplex him, in an operation of the mind which itself demands the full exercise of his undivided powers*. Also, when it is desired to illustrate the application of these abstract truths to practical purposes, — in mechanics, for example, — it is evident that lessons on the most simple subjects of that important branch of applied science must be wanting in demonstrative force, if the teacher is incapable of delineating the machines of which the lessons treat.

If, then, it be admitted, that drawing is of such universal application, it must appear singular that the general want of it has not been supplied, and that to this day comparatively few of the middle classes, and scarcely any artisans, possess a knowledge of drawing f.

* We are well aware that geometrical truths are based on the conclusions of reason, independently of the exactness of diagrams ; but practice in the exact delineation of these diagrams is as useful in geometry as the correct solution of exercises in arithmetic. It serves to impress the knowledge more efficiently on the mind of the young student, at the same time that it directs at once his attention to drawings of constructions, the chief use to which geometry, strictly so called, is applied.

t The annexed passage in Locke's Thoughts on Education shows the degree of importance attached to a knowledge of drawing by that distinguished philosopher : —

Drawing formerly cultivated among Artisans.

That this has not always been so, may be inferred both from historical records, and from the evidence furnished by the monuments of past ages.

Among the Greeks, drawing and design are said to have been cultivated, not merely by the artists who sent forth from their ranks the eminent men to whom the world remains indebted for those perfect models of architecture and statuary which modern genius has in vain essayed to surpass or equal, but also by the mass of the people, who by that cultivation became qualified to appreciate and reverence the productions of genius, the familiar observation of which gave additional refinement to their taste.

"When he (the pupil) can write well and quick, I think it may be convenient not only to continue the exercise of his hand in writing, but also to improve the use of it further in drawing, a thing very useful to gentlemen on several occasions, but especially if he travel, as that which helps a man often to express, in a few lines well put together, what a whole sheet of paper in writing would not be able to represent and make intelligible. How many buildings may a man see, how many machines and habits meet with, the ideas whereof would be easily retained and communicated by a little skill in drawing, which being committed to words, are in danger of being lost, or at best but ill retained in the most exact descriptions? I do not mean that I would have your son a perfect painter : to be that to any tolerable degree will require more time than a young gentleman can spare from his other improvements of greater moment ; but so much insight into perspective, and skill in drawing, as will enable him to represent tolerably on paper anything he sees, may, I think, be got in a little time."

And that, in the middle ages, numbers of artificers must have understood the arts of drawing and sculpture, is made manifest (independently of historical records) by the religious monuments of that era that adorn all parts of Europe, and of which every district in England presents noble specimens. They offer to our admiration examples so numerous and wonderful of elaborate carving, and appropriate ornaments made subservient in their most minute detail to the essential parts of the construction, that we feel convinced that numbers of artificers, possessing a knowledge of drawing, must have lent their aid to execute with such fidelity the bold conceptions of the architects. This conclusion will be admitted by those who have experienced the difficulty of making even the foremen of masons or bricklayers understand the working drawings of very simple constructions.

Erroneous opinion that Drawing may not be learned by all.

A belief, nevertheless, obtains very generally, that drawing is an art difficult of acquirement, and one which can be cultivated successfully only by few. Without doubt, the higher branches of this art, as of all others, can only be cultivated to perfection by a small number of the most highly gifted; but correct drawing, and a facility in representing objects, or giving expression to ideas, may be acquired by all, and requires no genius*.

* From an unfortunate and false idea, it has been determined,

It is with drawing as with literary composition. Although but few have, in the course of ages, obtained pre-eminence by their productions, the art of writing, nevertheless, continues to be studied and practised by the mass. Unable to produce works fit to be compared with the master-pieces of those master-minds, they, nevertheless, succeed in expressing their thoughts correctly, thereby adding to the general fund of knowledge.

If we compare the elements of drawing with the elements of mechanical writing, (i. e., the mere formation and combination of letters,) we shall find that they are, both alike, imitative arts. " Writing is a species of drawing; it represents forms and appearances in certain proportions and in a certain order," and he that can be taught to imitate the shapes of letters may likewise, by the adoption of a judicious method, be taught to imitate other forms; indeed, the complicated forms of letters in many languages present more serious obstacles than are met with in the rudiments of drawing.

Causes of the general want of a knowledge of Drawing.

We regret that there is some appearance of reason for the prevailing belief, that drawing prethat a particular genius is necessary to drawing. Forgetting that it is proper for every one to see aright, (should they choose never to draw,) the principles of appearance are in general neglected, and the most useful, most common, and most delightful of the powers of sense is not enjoyed in its full extent. — Robson's Grammar of Drawing, page 17.

sents at every step so many difficulties that they cannot be overcome by the mass; a conclusion deduced naturally enough from the circumstance that so very few among the middle classes can represent correctly any simple natural object, although the greater number have received lessons in drawing. The fact that so many parents continue to have their children taught the art, although in the majority of instances the study seems to lead only to waste of time, may be taken as a proof of the sense they entertain of its usefulness. One cause for this general want we lament may certainly be ascribed to the fact, that the study of drawing is too long deferred ; but, without losing sight of this element, we shall endeavour to demonstrate, that the chief reason for this contradiction between our proposition, that drawing may be learned by all, and the results of ordinary practice, exists in the insufficiency of the methods generally adopted.

Essential principles of sound method in elementary instruction.

The question of "method" is one of too high importance, and too extensive a bearing, to be examined in this place: we shall limit our observations to a statement of what are generally admitted to be essential principles in a right method of teaching the elements of any branch of knowledge, and examine whether the plans generally adopted for teaching drawing are in accordance with those principles.

In every method of instruction we trace three distinct processes: 1st, Analysis; 2nd, Classification; 3rd, Synthesis, or Construction.

The first and second of these processes, being the more difficult, should be effected by the teacher, under whose guidance the pupil should perform the third operation of construction.

In this, the more simple demonstrations should always precede the more complex, each lesson being a continuation of the previous one, and a preparation for that which succeeds it. In this arrangement the teacher will avoid presenting any serious difficulty at the outset, and treat the subject in such an order that, commencing with a very simple proposition, he shall lead the pupil onwards by a succession of increasing difficulties, so minute as to be almost imperceptible, but capable in the aggregate of carrying him, with unrelaxed attention and increasing conviction, to the most complex problems. " The chief art of learning is to attempt but little at a time; the widest excursions of the mind are made by short flights frequently repeated."

To fix the attention of the pupil, practice should invariably accompany theory; in other words, no rule ought to be deduced or taught without an early opportunity being afforded for its application. By due attention to this maxim, imitation or mere rote-work will be avoided ; and when the faculties of imitation and memory are exercised, it will be in conjunction with those of perception and reflection ; and the reason of the pupil will assist him, and his

METHODS OF TEACHING DRAWING.

judgment will be convinced, in the consideration of each new problem.

If attention to these general principles be essential to ensure success in a right method of instruction, we have next to examine whether the methods in general use for teaching drawing are based upon them.

Drawing from Copies.

In the first place we observe, that the pupil is almost universally made to draw from copies.

This fails to exercise the judgment. The drawings which serve as copies, exhibit a symmetrical disposition of lines in true perspective, as also varieties of tint and shadow duly laid and harmonized: they are imitated mechanically by the pupil without his understanding or reflecting upon the means whereby certain effects are produced. His hand alone is exercised ; he fails to acquire a habit of observing and seeing correctly, and is unable, after years of labour spent in these purely mechanical exercises, to represent correctly the simplest natural objects. The Chinese cultivate the art of drawing according to this plan ; they copy from copies, and produce fac-similes of any work of art; but this is performed solely as a piece of laborious imitation; and their signal failure, when they undertake to design original compositions, is the consequence of the faulty system which aims at training the hand alone to works of the highest skill. High finish in the drawing cannot compensate for glaring inaccuracies of perspective, and even the individual forms, although elaborately brought out, are devoid of expression, exhibiting labour and pains without intelligence, the consequence of following out details without comprehending the scope of the whole design, and of exercising the hand without the guidance of science and understanding.

Drawing from Copies a delusive hind of industry.

Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Second Discourse, says, " I consider general copying as a delusive kind of industry; the student satisfies himself with the appearance of doing something; he falls into the dangerous habit of imitating without selecting, and labouring without a determinate object: as it requires no effort of the mind, he sleeps over his work ; and those powers of invention and disposition, which ought particularly to be called out and put into action, lie torpid and lose their energy for want of exercise. How incapable of producing anything of their own those are who have spent most of their time in making finished copies, is an observation well known to all those who are conversant with our art."

Moreover, the drawings presented to the pupil as models, are not always perfect, having themselves probably been copied from other copies, which may also have been made without direct reference to nature. The drawings of all are more or less characterized by mannerism, and thus, a defect in the original imitation is imitated with care by the pupil, who receives praise or blame according as he approaches to or departs from the peculiar style of the master's productions, whose preconceptions lead him to discourage in his pupil the cultivation of a touch or mode of execution at variance with his own.

Exclusive, therefore, of a certain mechanical facility of touch, the pupil acquires little real knowledge by drawing from copies. After years of study, he will be capable of making highly-finished fac-similes of engravings or drawings; and, if he be endowed with a retentive memory, he will have learned a set of unvarying conventional signs for the representation of natural objects in their numberless variations.

Drawing from Copies conveys no knowledge of the Laws of Perspective.

To draw from nature, or to produce a representation of actual things, being the aim of the majority of those who study the art, the pupil will, on leaving his master's care, endeavour to represent some familiar forms ; but as he knows nothing of the laws which regulate the appearance of solid bodies, nor of the principles by the help of which these may be pourtrayed on a plane or curved surface, he will find himself compelled, in the representation of the more complex forms, to return to the conventional signs he has hitherto used for them, and will apply these indiscriminately, regardless at first of giving an unfaithful copy of nature. Each new attempt, however, will tend to impress him with a consciousness of his

METHODS OP TEACHING DRAWING.

defects; and, discouraged by the failure of his endeavours to remedy them, he will give up, then and for the remainder of his days, the further cultivation of drawing, satisfied with the reflection that he has no taste for its pursuit, and seldom thinking to call in question the supposed fitness of the method by which he has been taught.

This is the history of the majority of those who devote for several years, to the cultivation of drawing, a portion of their valuable time, thus misapplied and lost*.

* " Freedom of execution, or masterly handling, as it is termed, is often taught to pupils, that they may appear to be making great strides in the art. The master frequently finds his pupil too dull, or too inattentive, to acquire a correct knowledge of his subject, therefore gives him the power of displaying an appearance of dexterity. To an uneducated eye, a sketch of a tree, for example, may be hit off by the pupil with sufficient resemblance to satisfy all parties ; the parents see nothing in the original different from the copy, for that which appears to them but a scribbled appearance in the original indicates to the eye of an artist foliage, branch, and shadows; thus their education seems finished before it is in reality begun, and they leave school without the power of drawing a line. In after life, when they wish to delineate objects correctly, they find this dexterity rather an incumbrance; the eye, previously debauched, is incapable of receiving a true impression, while the hand, necessarily confined to the several spans allotted to the different forms, feels cramped and awkward, and obliges them to throw down the pencil in despair. In other branches of science we find this dexterity checked in its infancy. I remember an artist who always took an opportunity of disconcerting the pretensions of such precocious geniuses in drawing, by laying down a key, or a pair of snuffers, for them to delineate."— Burnet on the Education of the Eye, note, page 21.