Spinning woollen and worsted: being a practical treatise for the use of all persons engaged in these trades

Front matter

FHILflbELFHIfl ^

Article V.— The Library shall be divided into two classes ; the firs comprising such works as, from their rarity or value, should not be ler out, all unbound periodicals, and such text books as ought to be foun in a library of reference except when required by C^mittees of th Institute, or by members or holders of second class stock, who hav obtained the sanction of the Committee. The second class shall includ those books intended for circulation.

Article VI.— The Secretary shall have authority to loan to Meinbei and to holders of second class stock, anv work belonging to the secox (.'LASS, subject to the following regulations :

Preface

Vll have no opportunity of obtaining that general knowledge which increases their power of usefulness. This work may in a small degree tend to remove that defect, and will show how much there is in common between the two trades.

It has been necessary to explain the workings and construction of certain macliines at some length, rather than, to confine the Manual to general principles. But in amy manufacturing trade, the principles can only be seen clearly wlien carried out in practice by the machinery, and therefore without'the descriptions they would only be understood by those actually engaged in giving effect to them in daily work.

I gladly take this opportunity of thanking those friends, among whom I will only mention the Manager and overlookers of my own mill, who have kindly given me much help in preparing this Manual.

Walter S. B. McLaren.

Spriitffjeld Mill, Keighley.

Contents

CHAPTEK I.

THE NATURE OP WOOL. PASr

1. Wool and Hair— 2. Growth of Wool— 3. Formation of the Fihre-4. Wool, FihroHS and Porous— 5. Serratures of Wool— 6. Serratures in Various Wools — 7. Causes Affecting Length and Quality— 8. Trueness of Breeding— 9. Soundness of Fibre— 10. Softness, Fineness, and Length— 11. Colour— 12. Felting— 13. Alpaca and Mohair I

Chapter II. Wool-soktikg

U. Hogs and Wethers— 15. Different Qualities of Wool— 16. Range of Qualities— 17. Names of Qualities— 18. Form of the Fleece— 19. SkmWool— 20. Wool-Sorters' Disease— 21. Theory of the Disease— 22. Nature of the Disease— 23. Beat Preventive— 24. Method usually Employed 14

CHAPTER III. WOOL-WASHItJa AKD OILING

25. Yolk on Wool— 23. Sheep Washing— 27. Advantages and Disadvantages of Washing Sheep— 28. Adulterated Soap— 29. Effect of Hswd Water— 30. Means for Softening Water— 31. Receipts for Soap— 32. Danger of Strong Soap and Hot Water— 33. Petrie's Washing Bowl —34. McNaught'sandJeff'erson's Bowls— 35. Dr. Braun's Machine— 36. Verviers Wool-washing— 37. Ordinary Hot Blast Drying Machine —38. Petrie's Dryer— 39. Moore's Dryer— 40. Hydro-Extractor— 41. Oiling Wool— 42. Best Oil to be Used— 43. Oleine Oil for Woollens —44. Test for Oil— 45. Quantity to be Used— 46. Carbonisation— 47. Methods Employed— 48. Wool not Injured if Care be Taken — 49. Wiesn«r's Experiments— 60. Extraction of Oil from Soap Suds . 24

X

WOOLLEN AND WORSTED.

Chapter IV

THE DIFFEEENCE BETWEEN WORSTED AND WOOLLEN. PAGS

Si. Worsted and Woollen— 52. Former Distinction Untenable— 53. Difference not in Length, nor ia Combing and Carding — 54. Nor in Mule and Throstle— 55. Nor in Milling— 56. Difference lies in Arrangement of Fibres— 57. In Worsted, Fibres lie Smooth and Parallel— 58. In Woollen, Fibres lie Roughly and Crossed— 59. Appearance of the Two Yams— 60. Processes Designed to Assist these Characteristics— Worsted— 61. Process for Woollen— 62. Definitions of Worsted and Woollen Threads 52

Chapter V. Preparing And Carding For Combing

•63. Different Treatment for Different Yarns— 64. Subdivision of Processes for Worsted— 65. Preparing by Gdl Boxes— 66. Principle of First Gill Box— 67. Clough's Gill Bos— 68. Diagram of Clough'a GUI Box— 69. Set of Gill Boxes— 70. Levelling the Slivers— 71. Method of Oiling— 72. Special Points needing Care— 73. Fallers— 74. Draft of GUI Boxes— 75. Draft between Front Rollers and Fallers— 76. Suitable Drafts for Set of Boxes — 77. Preparing for Mohair and Alpaca— 78. Carding before Combing— 79. The Tenter Hook Willey — 80. Lickers-in or Opening Rollers — 81. Arrangement of a Card— 82. Bun-ing Rollers— 83. Carding without Combing— 84. Difference between Preparing and Carding— 85. Capability for Milling not affected by GUling — 86. Back- washing— 87. Card Clothing— 88. Speeds of Cards— 89. Modem Improvements 61

Chapter VI. Wool-combing

•SO. Hand Combing— 9L The Nip Comb— 92. Action of the Nip Comb— 93. Chief Point of the Nip Comb— 94. Setting of Nip Comb— 95. Noble's Comb— 96. Ground Plan of Noble's Comb— 97. Feeding the Noble Comb— 98. Dabbing Brushes— 99. Double Drawing-oif Rollers— 100. Defects of Noble's Combs— 101. Holden's or Square-motion Comb — 102. Bailey's Noil-motion — 103. Advantages of Holden's Comb— 104. Other Combs— 105. Balling or Top-making . 90

Chapter VII. Drawing

106. Principle of Drawing— 107. Drafting Twice the same Way— 108. Open Drawing— 109. Two-Spindle Gill Box— 110. Varying Speed and Drag of Bobbin— 111. Open Drawing Boxes— 112. Knocker off Motion— 113. Roving and Size of Bobbins— 114. Botany Open Drawing—115. Drawing without Gills— 116. The Ratch— 117. Amount of

CONTENTS.

XI

Draft— 118. Calculations for Draft— 119. Test of Calculations— 120. Gauge Points— 121. Corresponding Speeds of Boxes— 122. Advantage of Cone Drawing— 123. Principle of Cone Drawing— 124. Effect of Cone Drawing— 125. Variation in Speed of Bobbins— 126. The Bobbin can Lead the Flyer— 127. Speeds with Flyer leading Bobbin— 128. Speeds with Bobbin leading Flyer -129. French Drawing— 130. Effect of French Drawing 118

CHAPTER VIII. WORSTED SPINNINa

131. Principle of Spinning— 132. Flyer Spinning Frame— 133. Flyer Spinning— Twisting and Winding the Yarn— 134. Calculations for Twist and Speed— 135. Calculations for Draft— 138. General Formulse for Spinning — 137. Cap Frame — 138. Drawbacks and Advantages of Caps— 139. Movable Cylinders for Cap Frames- 140. Ring Spinning— 141. Improved Lifter Motion— 142. Important Points in Ring Spinning— 143. Fox's Ring and Cap Frame— 144. Mitchell's Caps for Spinning-Bobbins— 145. Stop-motions for Spinning Frames— 146. Worsted Mule Spinning— 147. Calculations for Yam 150

Chapter IX. Woollen Carding

148. The Woollen Trade— 149. Shake Willey— 150. Blending and Oiling—151. Mixing Wool and Cotton— 152. Care needed in Blending —153. Mixing Willey — 154. Shoddy, Mungo, and Flocks — 155. Burring Machine -156. Card-feeding Machines— Evan and King's — 157. Bramwell's Weighing and Feediug Machine— 158. The Scribbler —159. Functions of the Various Rollers— 160. Relative Action of the Card Wires— 161. Setting the Rollers — 162. Lickers-in and Breast— 163. The Swift— 164. The Fancy-165. The DofEer— 166. The Workers and Strippers— 167. Grinding— 168. Turning and Covering Rollers— 169. Card Clothing— 170. To lind the Amount of Clothing Required

Chapter X. Feeding, Condensing, And Spinning

171. Intermediate Feeding Machines— 172. Blamire's Feed— 173. Balling Head and Creel Feed— 174. The Scotch Feed— 175. The Apperley j^eed- 176. Last Swift to be Covered with Filletting— 177. Ring Doffers— 178, Double Rubber Condenser— 179. Single Rubber Condenser— 180. Double Doffer— 181. Belgian Condenser— 182. Belgian Carding— 183. Mule Spinning— 184. Difference between Worsted and Woollen

Xll WOOLLEN AND WORSTED.

Chapter XI

TWISTING, REELING, AKD SCOURING. VAOK

185. Winding— 186. Roller and Trap Twisters— 187. Stop-Motion Twisters —188. Effect of Twisting— 189. Reeling— 190. Gassing and Scouring —191. Shrinking— 192. Conclusion 235

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.

PAGE

Fibres of Wool 7

Qualities of Wool on English Sheep . . . .16

Petrie's Washing Bowl 33

Jefferson's Washing Eollers 35

Dr. Braun's Washing Machine 37

Petrie's Dryer 41

Moore's Dryer 42

Hydro-Extractor 43

Woollen and Worsted Threads 57

First Preparing Box 63

Clough's Preparing Box, Section 67

Tenter-hook Willey 79

Carding Machine f^O

Filletting for Lickers-in i^l

Portion of Card, Section S3

Back-Washing Machine J^7

Hand Comb 90

lister or Nip Comb 92

Ball-Making Box for Noble's Comb 98

Noble's Comb 99

Circles of Noble's Comb, Positions 100

Full Plan 103

Dabbing Brush • - .106

Double Drawing-Off Eollers for Noble's Comb . . .108 Holden's or Square-Motion Comb (right side) . . .111 „ (leftside) . . - 113 xiv WOOLLEN AND WORSTED.

PAGE

Bailey's Noil Motion 115

Balling Box 117

Double-Can Gill Box and Faller 12a

Two-Spindle Gill Box .122

Six-Spindle Drawing Box 124

Eight-Spindle Eoving Box 127

Four-Spindle Cone-Drawing Box . . . . . .137

Twelve-Spindle Cone-Drawing Box, Plan . . . . 13S

Lifter Motion for Cone Drawing 141

French Drawing, Wrong Position of Porcupine . . . 147

„ „ Eight Position of Porcupine . . . i47

Flyer Spinning Frame 151

Flyer Spinning, Winding Yarn on Bohhiu . . . . 154

Cap Spinning Frame 161

Movable Cylinders for Cap Frames 164

Ping Spinning Frame 165

Ring 166

Lifter Motion for Ring Frame 168

Fox's Cap and Ring Frame 170

Mitchell's Caps for Bobbins 172

Mitchell's Stop Motion for Spinning 175

Shake Willey 183

Mixing Willey 186

Burring Machine 190

Bramwell's Feeding Machine 193

Scribbler, Section 196

,, Perspective View 196

Relative Positions of Card Rollers 197

Card Wires 199

Grinding Frame 207

Blamire's Feed 214

Balling Head and Creel Feed 217

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. XV

PAGE

Scotch Feed 219

Double-Rubber Condenser 22S

Single-Rubber Condenser 225-

Double DofEer 226

WooUen Mule 230

Roller Twister 236

lUingworth's Trap Cap Twister . .... 237

Boyd's Redoubler or Twister 24ft

SPINNING

WooLLEE" AND "Worsted.

Chapter I. The Nature Op Wool

1. Wool and Hair. — To understand the processes of the worsted and woollen trades, and the principles which underlie them, it is necessary to be familiar with the growth and nature of wool. It is hard to say exactly what is the difference between wool and hair. Chemically they are the same; and though few persons accustomed to wool would have any difficulty in saying which of two samples was wool, and which was hair, yet the fine hair of some animals grows so like fine wool, and the coarser wool of some sheep becomes so like strong hair, that no exact division can be made between the two materials. Wool, indeed, is but a variety of hair. The distinguishing marks between the two are chiefly that a hair lies straight, and, if examined under a microscope, is seen to have a comparatively smooth surface. Wool, on the other hand, is waved, and its surface is covered with almost innumerable scales or serratures, all of which point from the root to the tip, and thus give it an appearance like the edge of a saw or a fir-cone.

2. Growth of Wool.— The growth of wool is, in its chief features, similar to that of hair. Mr. Youatt, a well-known writer on the subject, thus describes its development and anatomy: — "The skin of the sheep, and of animals generally, is composed of three textures. Externally is the cuticle or scarf-skin, which is thin, tough, and devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable holes,

B

WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.

[Chap. I.

through which pass the fibres of wool and the insensible perspiration. Below this is the rete mucosum, a soft structure, its fibres having scarcely more consistency than mucilage, and being with great diificulty separated from the skin beneath. Below this is the true skin, composed of innumerable minute fibres, crossing each other in every direction, highly elastic in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to the various motions of the body, and dense and firm in its sti'ucture that it may resist external injury. Blood-vessels and nerves, countless in number, pierce it, and appear on its surface in the form of papillse, or minute eminences, while through thousands of little orifices the exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous fluid. In the fatty and cellular substance immediately beneath the cutis, or true skin — some say embedded in the true skin — there are numerous minute vascular bulbs ; they arise from the cellular texture, and penetrate into the true skin ; they consist of a double membrane, the outer one of which stops at the pore, or minute aperture in the skin, and between the two membranes a vascular texture has been traced. From the interior and centre of the inner membrane there proceeds a minute eminence or papilla, which, surrounded by the membrane, projects into and through the cutis, while numerous fine filaments unite to form or to surround a seeming prolongation of the original papilla. In this way it gradually penetrates the cutis, the rete mucosum, from which it takes its colour, and then, either pushing its way through the cuticle — the displaced portion of which falls ofi" in the form of scurf — or carrying a part of the cuticle with it as a kind of sheath, it appears under the form and character of hair."

3. Formation of the Fibre. — It must not, however, be supposed that a fibre of wool is a solid structure forced through the skin in the form in which it is afterwards seen. The papilla just mentioned is composed of a great number of very minute cells containing fluid, which is obtained from the blood when that is in a

FORMATION OP THE FIBRE.

proper condition for supplying it. These cells group together, some in the centre, others round them. As they force their way through the cuticle, the fluid evaporates from those at the outside, causing the membrane which forms the cell to collapse ; and thus the fibre is created by all the fluid in those cells evaporating, and their walls shrinking in, and forming a small hollow stalk or fibre, which is round or oval because the cells shrink simultaneously as they are projected through the skin. These shrunken cells form the serratures or saw-like edges which we have mentioned, and of which we shall presently say more. Just as in a saw or a fir-cone each point overlaps the base of the one in front of it, so do the serratures of wool overlap each other. The reason of this is clear. As any given cell comes out from the skin the part in front shrinks first and forms a point. The remainder shrinks in its turn, and is flattened down. The next cell succeeding it is pushed forward, and overlaps its predecessor, forming for itself a point which covers the base of the one before it, precisely in the same way as one point in a fir-cone covers the base of the point in front of it. There is, however, this difference, that wool being gelatinous and of the same nature as horn, the membrane comprising the cells sticks together, and as each soft cell comes out, it forms both a partial covering and bed for its predecessor, and thus all together make one comjDact and continuous fibre. It must be remembered that as the fibre is composed originally of cells, though dried up and shi'unken, the cells always remain, and, under suitable conditions, can revert to some extent to their former nature. Being like horn, they can also be dissolved. It is these two facts which make the operation of washing of so much importance, and underlie the property of felting or matting, which is so characteristic of wool, and which, in brief, may be described as that property which enables a number of fibres, whether woven or merely compressed, to interlock and join together, so that they

WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.

[Cliap. T.

form one compact whole, and each fibre can no longer be separated, or even distinguished.

4. Wool, fibrous and porous. — Wool has a fibrous nature, and can be split easily ; indeed, when an animal is in an unsound state of health, its hair naturally splits from the point towards the root. It grows from the root, and constantly receives nourishment from the vessels belonging to its bulb. These vessels continue a short way beyond the root, and in the case of a certain disease which afiects human hair, known as pica polonica, they enlarge even to the extent of allowing blood to pass up the hair, so that each separate hair, when cut, bleeds. This seems to prove that the fibre is a fine tube, although some persons have contended that it is flat and solid. In good health it contains a sort of pulp or oil which gives it softness, and adds , to its brilliancy. When clean it is also translucent, and some sorts have a brilliant shining surface, known as lustre. This, however, depends on the breed of the sheep, and the way in which it has been fed and attended to ; lack of lustre does not, therefore, imply any inferiority in the wool, as some of the finest and best wools are without it, and are nearly opaque, as are also dark-coloured wools.

5. Serratures of Wool. — As it is very important that the structure of the fibre should be thoroughly understood, with regard especially to the varying serrations in different classes of wool, and their forms, Mr. Youatt's description is well woiiih quoting. He says : — " There can be no doubt with regard to the general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and possessing a semi-transparency not found in the fibre of hair. From this central stalk there springs, at different distances in different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. In the finer species of wool these circles seemed at first to be composed of one indented or serrated ring; but when the eye was accustomed to them this ring was resolvable into leaves or scales.

SERRATURES OF WOOL,

In the larger kinds the ring was at once resolvable into these scales or leaves, varying in number, shape, and size, and projecting at different angles from the stalk, and in the direction of the leaves of vegetables, i.e., from the root to the point. The extremities of the leaves in the long merino and Saxon wools were evidently pointed with acute indentations or angles between them. They were pointed also in the South Down, but not so much, and the interposed vacuities were less deep and angular. In the Leicester, the leaves are round with a diminutive point or space. Of the actual substance and strength of these leafy or scaly circles nothing can yet be affirmed, but they appear to be capable of different degrees of resistance, or of entanglement with other fibres, in proportion as their form is sharpened and as they project from the stalk ; and in proportion, likewise, as these circlets are multiplied. So far as the examination has hitherto proceeded, they are sharper and more numerous in the felting wools than in others, and in proportion as the felting property exists. The conclusion seems to be legitimate, and indeed inevitable, that they are connected with, or, in fact, that they give to the wool the power of felting, and regulate the degree in which that power is possessed.

"If to this is added the curved form which the fibre of the wool naturally assumes, and the well-known fact that these curves differ in the most striking degree in different breeds, according to the fineness of the fibre, and, when multiplying in a given space, increase both the means of entanglement and the difficulty of disengagement, the whole history of felting is unravelled. A cursory glance will discover the proportionate number of curves, and the microscope has now established a connection between the closeness of the curves and the number of serrations. The Saxon wool is remarkable for the close packing of its little curves — the number of serrations are 2,720 to an inch ; the South Down has numerous curves, but evidently more distant — the serrations are 2,080. In the Leicester, the wavy curls are

WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.

[Chap. I.

far removed from each other, and the serrations are 1,860; and in some of the wools which warm the ajiimals, but were not intended to clothe the human body, the curves are more distant, and the serrations not more than 480. The wool-grower, the stapler, and the manufacturer, can scarcely wish for better guides."

6. Serratures in Various ■Wools. — Any one can verify these observations for himself. Take some hairs and some fibres of South Down wool and hold them together. The hair will hang straight and smooth, the wool will be curly, something like a corkscrew, and will have a waved appearance. If it is passed between the finger and thumb, beginning with the root end, and drawn out towards the point, it will feel smooth ; but if the reverse way, it is sometimes possible to detect a feeling of roughness, as if the fibres were resisting the pressure and passage of the fingers. With a microscope there is no difiiculty in seeing the teeth-like edges which thus catch the fingers. They are generally likened to the edge of a saw, but the outside structure of wool is really more similar to that of a long thin fir-cone, rather thicker at the root than at the point, and covered with minute scales which stand out all the way round, and not merely at two flat edges like saw-teeth.

The annexed diagram (Fig. 1) representing various wools, will illustrate this. The first five are each shown twice, as semi-trans]Darent and opaque. In the former state they show the saw-like edges most clearly, but in the latter they appear as they really are, scaly indented fibres, with leaves lapping over each other like a fir-cone. A is a fibre of merino wool, short, fine, and white, and suitable for fine cloth. Its diameter is about of an

inch, and each inch has about 2,400 serrations, e is the finest Saxony wool, a cross between Spanish merino and native Saxon, and is one of the finest in the world. Its diameter is about xgVo inch, with 2,720 serrations.

The next in fineness is B, the South Down wool, about tIq-o of an inch, with some 2,000 serrations, c and D

Chap. I.] SERRATURES IN VARIOUS WOOLS

are Leicester and Lincoln, both stronger, but the latj which is the longest, heaviest, and brightest of lingJ

Fig. 1.

wools, has comparatively few serrations, and therefore has large scales. P is common wool, G is goat's hair, and H mohair, the brightest of all wools and closely resembling hair in every respect. Cow-hair and human hair,

WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.

I and J, are also given, the last being of all kinds of hair the softest and most wavy, though very different from the good wools. The coarsest English wool is about -iof an inch in diameter. The finest of all wools is said to be the American merino, with a diameter of — of an inch.

7. Causes affecting Length and Quality.— The

three causes which affect the length and quality of wool are the breed of the sheep, the climate, and the soil. These might be reduced to two, for the breed of the sheep ultimately depends on the climate and the soil ; but it is more useful to consider different breeds as quite distinct. The present breeds have been obtained in some instances by careful selections of those sheep which had a tendency to produce such wools as the grower desired and as the climate favoured ; until now some sheep will only grow short wool if left in their native district. In other instances, probably the most numerous, Nature has decided for herself what length and quality of wool the sheep must produce in each country; no matter what efforts the farmer may make to the contrary, he can only permanently rear short-woolled sheep where Nature favours short wool, and long-woolled sheep where she favours length. For instance, South Down sheep grown on the light soil and in the warm climate of the South of England produce short fine wool. If they were taken to the heavy soil and wet climate of Lincolnshire, they would gradually grow long and strong wool, which in time would become bright. The Australian sheep were originally imported from England, though they have been crossed with merino sheep. They now grow short fine wool, much finer than anything produced in this country. The farmers there, wishing to increase their weight of wool, cross the breed with Lincoln and Leicester rams. The first year the young sheep give long bright wool, the second year it is much shorter and finer, and each year that the sheep is allowed to live it grows still shorter and finer, till it becomes nearly like the ordinary

TRUENESS OF BREEDING.

Australian wool. What is the exact part played by climate and what by soil — which means quantity and quality of food — it is not possible to tell, but it is certain that in the case of sheep more quickly than in the case of any other animal Nature provides just such a covering as they need for proper warmth. One writer has said that " sheep carried from a cold to a warm climate soon undergo a very remarkable change in the appearance of their fleece. From being very fine and thick, it becomes thin and coarse, until at length it degenerates into hair." This statement has been endorsed by others^ but, as has been shown from the example of Australia, it is by no means correct. It seems, however, approximately correct of East Indian sheep, which grow short strong wool, in some cases like hair, and most of it cross-bred and kempy. It is highly probable, however, that this is due to bad breeding and defective nourishment, and that if merino sheep were taken to India they could be reared with success.

8. Trueness of Breeding. — The property for which wool is perhaps most valued is trueness of breeding. In a true-bred sheep each staple of wool, that is, each lock into which a group of fibres naturally forms itself, will be of equal growth throughout. The fibre will be the same thickness as nearly as possible the whole length, or will be finer at the point than at the root. There will be no shaggy rough wool in it. But if the sheep be cross-bred or ill kept and exposed to storms, the fibres will be rough at the points, and coarser there than at the roots ; the reason of this being that as the wool gets longer, or as it is more exposed to bad weather and hard trea,tment, nature makes it stronger to resist what it has to encounter, while the part which is next the skin remains fine to give greater warmth. Such wool, even when combed and spun into yarn, never lies as smoothly and evenly as true-bred wool, and is consequently not of as \ much value. There is another sort of wool which farmers do not seem to understand, and writers on the subject

WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.

[dtmp. I.

often ignore, but whicli is found more or less on all cross-bred sheep, and on sheep which are much exposed and fed in hilly districts. This is known as " kemp " or dead hairs. These kemps vary in length and coarseness according to the breed of sheep. In white Highland sheep they are about two inches long and very thick ; in cross-bred Australian they are very short. In the former they cover the under side of the fleece so as almost to hide the hair ; in the latter they are so few as not to be of any importance. They are, however, all alike in this, that they are a brilliant shining white (except on sheep with grey wool, when they may be black), and they will not dye the same colour as the rest of the wool. They consequently depreciate the value of the wool very greatly, making it only suitable for low-priced goods. They seem to be fibres of wool, which, owing to the coarseness of the breeding of the sheep, or owing to its exposure to rough weather, have been killed, so far as power to grow long is concerned ; but they grow in thickness and hardness till they become solid, glazed, and horny, and thus are unable to receive the substance of the dye. They never alter in the processes of carding, combing, or spinning, nor do they unite with the rest of the wool to form the thread, but lie on the surface, only held down by other fibres of wool which may be wrapped round over them. It should be the object of every breeder of sheep to diminish, if possible, these very kempy varieties of wool.

9. Soundness of Fibre. — The property of wool next in importance is soundness of fibre. It is clear that if the fibre is tender in the middle, it will break during some process of working, and thus the thread is weaker, and all value derived from length of wool is lost. Tenderness arises from ill health and neglect of the sheep, and is seen at once by the fibre being thin in some part ; just as when a person is ill, those portions of his finger-nails which are being formed during his illness grow and always remain thinner than the rest, so when a sheep is

FELTING PROPERTY OF WOOL.

ill or half starved, the portion of wool grown at the time is thin and tender. This can be most readily detected bypulling a small staple tightly from both ends, when, if it be tender, it will give way.

10. Softness, Fineness, and Length. — In softness, fineness, and length wools vary according to the breed, and just as any wool combines all three qualities so it is valuable. Whether wool which is fine but short is more valuable than that which is stronger but long, depends on the use to which they are to be put. Very fine wool is never, however, of great length. Strong wools grow from one to twenty inches long. Lustrous wools belong to the longer and stronger varieties, fine wools are usually devoid of any gloss, but are very much softer to the touch.

11. Colour. — With regard to colour, other things being equal, wool which is pure white is most valuable, but there are some sorts of fine natural browns which are also much prized. The soil has much to do with the colour. Sheep which are fed on rich grass lands have pure white wool, but those fed on sandy and red-tinged soil become more or less yellow, and even after washing the wool is not the brilliant white w^hich is seen in wool grown in clear pure air on good grass lands. Some wools are brown, black, grey, and even bright yellow ; among these last are certain qualities of Egyptian and East Indian. These colours are due to the nattire of the sheep, and are probably beyond the power of the farmer to alter.