The grandeur that was Rome; a survey of Roman culture and civilisation:

Front matter

L.

MMtWMMIMWMMHMMllitiklBiilji

Lehigh University

Preface

This book is a continuation of " The Glory that was Greece," written with the same purpose and from the same point of view.

The point of view is that of humanity and the progress of civilisation. The value of Rome's contribution to the lasting welfare of mankind is the test of what is to be emphasised or neglected. Hence the instructed reader will find a deliberate attempt to adjust the historical balance which has, I venture to think, been unfairly deflected by excessive deference to literary and scholastic traditions. The Roman histories of the nineteenth century were wont to stop short with the Republic, because "Classical Latin" ceased with Cicero and Ovid. They followed Livy and Tacitus in regarding the Republic as the hey-day of Roman greatness, and the Empire as merely a distressing sequel beginning and ending in tragedy. From the standpoint of civilisation this is an absurdity. The Republic was a mere preface. The Republic until its last century did nothing for the world, except to win battles whereby the road was opened for the subsequent advance of civilisation. Even the stern tenacity of the Roman defence against Hannibal, admirable as it was, can only be called superior to the still more heroic defence of Jerusalem by the Jews, because the former was successful and the latter failed. From the Republican standpoint Rome is immeasurably inferior to Athens, In short, what seemed important and glorious to Livy will not necessarily remain so after the lapse of nearly two thousand years. Rome is so vast a fact, and of consequences so far-reaching, that everygeneration mayclaim a share in interpreting

vii

PREFACE

her anew. There is the Rome of the ecclesiastic, of the diplomat, of the politician, of the soldier, of the economist. There is the Rome of the literary scholar, and the Rome of the archaeologist.

It is wonderful how this mighty and eternal city varies with her various historians. Diodorus of Sicily, to whom we owe most of her early history, was seeking mainly to flatter the claims of the Romans to a heroic past. Polybius, the trained Greek politician of the second century B.C., was writing Roman history in order to prove to his fellow-Greeks his theory of the basis of political success. Livy was seeking a solace for the miseries of his own day in contemplating the virtues of an idealised past. Tacitus, during an interval of mitigated despotism, strove to exhibit the crimes and follies of autocracy. These were both rhetoricians, trained in the school of Greek democratic oratory. Edward Gibbon, too (I write as one who cannot change trains at Lausanne without emotion), saw the Empire from the standpoint of eighteenth-century liberalism and materialism. Theodor Mommsen made Rome the setting for his Bismarckian Ceesarism, and finally, M. Boissier has enlivened her by peopling her streets with Parisians. It is, in fact, difficult to depict so huge a landscape without taking and revealing an individual point of view. There is always something fresh to see even in the muchthumbed records of Rome.

Although a large part of this book is written directly from the original sources, and none of it without frequent reference to them, it is, in the main, frankly a derivative history intended for readers who are not specialists. Except Pelham's Outlines, which are almost exclusively political, there is no other book in English, so far as I am aware, which attempts to give a view of the whole course of ancient Roman History within the limits of a single volume, and yet the Empire without the Republic is almost as incomplete as the Republic without the Empire. As for the Empire, although nothing can supersede or attempt to replace T/ie Decline and Fall, yet the scholar's viii

PREFACE

outlook on the history of the Empire has been greatly changed since Gibbon's day by the discovery of Pompeii and the study of inscriptions. Therefore while I fully admit my obligations to Gibbon and Mommsen (as well as to Dill, Pelham, Bury, Haverfield, Greenidge, Warde Fowler, Cruttwell, Sellar, Walters, Rice Holmes, and Mrs, Strong, and to Ferrero, Pais, Boissier, Seeck, Bernheim, Mau, Becker, and Friedlander) this book professes to be something more than a compilation, because it has a point of view of its own.

The pictures are an integral part of my scheme. It is not possible with Rome, as it was with Greece, to let pictures and statues take the place of wars and treaties. Wars and treaties are an essential part of the Grandeur of Rome. They should have a larger place here, were they less well known, and were there less need to redress a balance. But the pictures are chosen so that the reader's eye may be able to gather its own impression of the Roman genius. When the Roman took pen in hand he was usually more than half a Greek, but sometimes in his handling of bricks and mortar he revealed himself. For this reason — and because I must confess not to be a convinced admirer of" Roman Art" — there is an attempt to make the illustrations convey an impression of grand building, vast, solid, and utilitarian, rather than of finished sculpture by Greek hands. Pictures can produce this impression far more powerfully than words. Standing in the Colosseum or before the solid masonry of the Porta Nigra at Trier, one has seemed to come far closer to the heart of the essential Roman than ever in reading Vergil or Horace. The best Roman portraits are strangely illuminating,

I have to acknowledge with gratitude the permission given me by the Director of the Koniglichen Messbildanstalt of the Royal Museum at Berlin to reproduce four of the magnificent photographs of Dr. O. Puchstein's discoveries at Ba'albek. I am indebted also to Herr Georg Reimer, of Berlin, for allowing me to reproduce four of the complete series of Reliefs from Trajan's Column published by him in heliogravure under the

ix

PREFACE

care of Professor Cichorius. The coloured plate of the interior of the House of Livia is reproduced by permission of the German Archaeological Institute from Luckenbach's Kunst und Geschichte (grosse Ausgabe, erster Teil) ; and from the same work I have been allowed to reproduce the reconstruction of the Roman Forum in the time of Caesar. Professor Garstang has kindly supplied a photograph, with permission to reproduce, of the bronze head of Augustus discovered by him at Meroe and recently presented to the British Museum. The Cambridge University Press has allowed me to give two pictures from Prof. Ridgeway's Early Age of Greece; and the photograph of the Alcantara Bridge was kindly supplied by Sr. D. Miguel Utrillo, of Barcelona. Sir Alexander Binnie has kindly permitted the inclusion of eight photographs and Mr. C. T. Carr of four ; while I must also make acknowledgment to Miss Carr, Mr. R. C. Smith, and Miss K. P. Blair.

As before, I am much indebted to Mr. Arnold Gomme for his assistance with the proofs.

Cantlrbdrt, 1912 J. C S.

I AM glad to know that this book, which is a glorification not so much of Rome as of Peace and Civilisation, has survived the Great War, and I hope that in a cheaper form it may be brought within the reach of those new classes of adult readers who are showing an increased interest in the history of society. In these days of narrow specialisation, particularly in Roman studies, the ways of the " generalist " are beset with snares. I have gladly accepted such light as specialist reviewers have afforded. It has not been easy to keep up one's own spare-time studies in these latter days, but indeed there has been little fresh work anywhere on Roman History. I have added a few results of recent researches, and corrected various slips of pen and press.

RuiSLiP, 1920. J. C. S.

J

CONTENTS rAGB

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

Introduction

The Perspective of Roman History : Latinism : Italy and the Roman I

CHAP.

I. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME

The Growing Republic : The Constitution : The Early Roman : Early Religion : Law l6

II. CONQUEST

The Provinces : The Imperial City 44

III. THE LAST CENTURY OF THE

REPUBLIC The Gracchi : Marius : Sulla : Pompeius AND C^SAR : Late Republican Civilisation 82

IV. AUGUSTUS

The Senate : The People and the Magistrates : Army and Treasury : The Provinces 160

V. AUGUSTAN ROME

Reformationof Roman Society :Augustan Literature : Art : Architecture 223

VI. THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE

The Principate : Imperial Rome : Education and Literature : Art : Law Philosophy and Religion 253

EPILOGUE 305

INDEX 329

xi

NOTE

The cameo on the front cover of this volume is from a sardonyx head ofGermanicus in the Carlisle collection.

PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES

HEAD OF AUGUSTUS WITH CROWN OF OAK-LEAVES Frontispiece

Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Bruckmann of the original in the Glyptothek, Munich. An idealised portrait of the emperor in middle life. He wears the corona civica. See p. 169

PAGB

« CLYTIE " 248

Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original marble in the British Museum. An ideaUsed portrait-bust of a lady of the imperial family, possibly Antonia, the work of a Greek artist of the Augustan Age. The name " Clytie " has no authority : the frame of petals is purely decorative

MAP (IN COLOUR) THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS FULLEST EXTENT 194

1 GENERAL VIEW OF ROMAN FORUM 4

From a photograph by Anderson. The view is taken from the Capitol, looking S.E. at the Arch of Titus, on the left of which part of the Colosseum is visible. The background on the right is filled by the Palatine Hill and the substructures of Caligula's Palace, in front of which the walls of the Temple of Augustus are visible. To the right of the middle are three columns and part of the entablature of the Temple of Castor. In the centre is the Column of Phocas. The foreground is occupied by the Arch of Severus (1.), the Temple of Saturn (r.) and two Corinthian columns of the Temple of Vespasian.

2 THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA 6

From a photograph by Anderson. The ruined arches belonged to the Aqueduct of Claudius. See p. 293

3 VIEW OF SPOLETO 8

From a photograph by Anderson. Modern view showing a typical hill-town or arx. Spoletium is chiefly famous in ancient history for its gallant repulse of Hannibal in 217 b.c

b xiii

TO FACE

PLAXKS PAGB

4 THE CAPITOLINE WOLF i8

From a photograph by Anderson of the original bronze in the Palace of the Conservatori, Rome. The wolf herself is ancient, probably of Etruscan workmanship. See p. l8

5 (Fig. I) ARCHAIC BRONZE : " PAN " 20

Primitive Etruscan work. A horned and bearded god (Fig. 2) ARCHAIC BRONZE : " ARTEMIS "

From photographs by Mansell & Co. of the originals in the British Museum, showing the development of Etruscan bronze-work

6 ETRUSCAN VASE 22

Drawn from Vase F.488 in the Etruscan Room, British Museum. A curiously debased design, which Uke much of Etruscan art suggests unintelligent copying of Greek models

7 ETRUSCAN TOMB IN TERRA-COTTA 24

From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the Terra-cotta Room, British Museum. The reader will notice the close resemblance of this work, particularly the rehef depicting the battle and the mourners, to Greek rehef-work of the sixth century B.C.

8 VIA APPIA : THE APPIAN WAY 40

From a photograph by Anderson. The remains of Roman tombs may be seen on each side of the road

9 LAKE TRASIMENE 50

From photographs by C. T. Carr. The scene of the famous battle of 217 B.C., in which Hannibal ambushed the Roman army on the shores of the lake

10 BRONZE STATUE OF AULUS METILIUS [" THE ARRINGA-

From a photograph by AUnari of the original bronze statue in the Archjeological Museum, Florence. One of the rare examples of early republican portraiture, found near Lake Trasimene, a statue of Aulus Metilius (unknown to history) in the guise of an orator. It is assigned to the end of the third century B.C., and is said to represent the transition between Etruscan and Roman portraiture. I think, however, that it would be true to describe it as a Roman head, probably copied from a death-mask, upon a Greek body. Where is the Etruscan element t

11 PUBLIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS 72

From a photograph by Brogi of the original bronze in the Naples Museum. The authenticity of the portrait cannot be guaranteed, but it is a fine example of Republican portraiture

12 (Fig. I) ETRUSCAN WARRIOR : BRONZE STATUETTE 88

Possibly imported from Greece (Fig. 2) ROMAN LEGIONARY OF THE EMPIRE : BRONZE STATUETTE

From photographs by Mansell & Co. of the originals in the British Museum. These two bronze statuettes show the essential similarity of Roman and Etruscan (or Greek) armour, wliich consists mainly of a cuirass of leather plated with metal

xlv

TO PACE PLATES PAGE

13 SCABBARD OF LEGIONARY SWORD 98

From photographs of the original in the British Museum. The scabbard is in the scale of I : ,4. The sword was only 21 in. long and 2J in. at the greatest breadth. It was found at Mainz. The scabbard is of wood ornamented with plates of silver-gilt. At the top is a relief showing Tiberius welcoming Germanicus on his victorious return from Germany (a.d. 17). In the centre is a portrait medaUion of Tiberius. The relief at the bottom indicates the return of the standards of Varus to a Roman temple. Below is an Amazon armed with the German battle-axe

14 CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS 104

From a photograph by Tryde of the original marble in the Jacobsen collection at Copenhagen. There is no sufficient reason to doubt the authenticity of this famous portrait of Pompey the Great. It closely resembles a beautiful gem in the Chatsworth collection

15 BUST OF " CICERO " 108

From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. A fine portrait ; but its authenticity cannot be guaranteed

16 TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, ROME 112

From a photograph by Anderson. Erected in 78 B.C. Notice the Ionic columns used purely as ornament

17 TEMPLE OF VESTA, TIVOLI 116

From a photograph by Alinari. Commonly known as " The Temple of the Sibyl," but more properly assigned to Vesta. This is considered to be work of about 80 b.c. The style is Corinthian

18 (Fig. I) VENUS GENETRIX 120

From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Louvre. Described on p. 156

(Fig. 2) THE MEDICI VENUS

From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. This celebrated and once admired statue is now regarded as typical of the degenerate Greek work produced for the Roman market. The technique is still admirable

19 JULIUS CiESAR

From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the marble head in the British 136 Museum. See p. 157

20 (Fig. I) BUST OF JULIUS C^SAR 138

From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Vatican, Rome. See p. 157

(Fig. 2) BUST OF BRUTUS

From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Capitoline Museum, Rome. The authenticity of this has been doubted, but on insufficient grounds. Evidently a work of about the same period as the " Young Augustus " (plate 25)

XV

TO PACE PLATES PAOB

21 ARRETINE POTTERY 140

Plate from " The Art of the Romans " by H. B. Walters, by kind permission of Messrs. Methuen & Co. Arretine pottery takes its name from Arretium (Arezzo), the chief centre of this native Italian industry. It is distinguished by the fine crimson clay of which it is made. The designs stamped in rehef from moulds are generally imitated from Greek metal-work or Samian ware. The pieces are seldom more than 6 in. in height

22 COIN PLATE

1. Coin of Pontus, with head of Mithradates the Great. See pp. I03,

2. Silver Tetradrachm, with heads of Antony and Cleopatra. See

3. Denarius of SuUa

Rev. Q. Pompeius Rufus, consul with Sulla in 88 B.C.

4. Denarius of Julius Caesar

Rev. figure of Victory, with name of L. .^Emilius Buca, triumvir of the mint

5. Coin of Tiberius, with head of Livia and inscription salvs avcvsta

23 AUGUSTUS : THE BLACAS CAMEO 144

From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the Gem Room, British Museum. Probably the work of Dioscorides, who had the exclusive right of portraying Augustus

24 AUGUSTUS : THE " PRIMAPORTA " STATUE 148

From a photograph by Anderson of the statue in the Vatican, Rome. The emperor is depicted as a triumphant general, haranguing his troops. In the centre of the breastplate is a Parthian humbly surrendering the standards to a Roman soldier

25 AUGUSTUS AS A YOUTH 150

From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Vatican, Rome. A distinctly Greek portrait, possibly taken during his early days at Apollonia ; an authentic original bust

26 AUGUSTUS : BRONZE HEAD, FROM MERGE 152

jFrom a photograph supplied by Prof. Garstang of the original bronze, discovered by him in 1910, at Meroe in Egypt, and since presented to the British Museum

27 M. VIPSANIUS AGRIPPA 154

From a photograph by Alinari of the bust in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. The design of the bust is inconsistent with the belief that this is a contemporary portrait. But it resembles the portraits of the general on the coins

28 (Fig. I) ROMAN BRIDGE AT RIMINI 156

This fine marble bridge was begun by Augustus and completed by Tiberius. Ariminum was the northern terminus of the great Flaminian Road (Fig. 2) ROMAN THEATRE AT VERONA

From photographs by C. T. Carr. The theatre was erected by Diocletian about A.D. 290 and was restored by Napoleon. It would

xvi

TO FACE PACK contain about 20,000 spectators. Verona was the capital under Theodoric the Ostrogoth

29 TWO VIEWS OF THE PONT DU CARD 158

This is part of the great aqueduct which supplied Nismeswith water. The bridge has a span of 880 feet across the valley of the Gardon. The lower tiers are built of stone without mortar or cement of any kind

30 (Fig. I) INTERIOR OF ROMAN TEMPLE, NISMES 160 (Fig. 2) LOWER CORRIDOR OF ARENA, NISMES

The amphitheatre at Nismes is larger than that of Verona. There are sixty arches on the ground and first floors, with larger apertures at the four cardinal points

31 THE ARENA, NISMES 162

Notice the consoles in the attic story. These are pierced with round holes to contain the poles which once supported an awning for the protection of the spectators from the heat

32 (Fig. I) TRIUMPHAL ARCH, ST. REMY, ARLES 164

Aries (Arelate) was one of the chief towns of GaUia Narbonensis, and a colony of Augustus. The upper part of the arch has perished. The sculptures represent chained captives. There is no inscription and the date of the monument is uncertain

(Fig. 2) MAUSOLEUM OF JULIUS, ST. REMY, ARLES

This mausoleum was erected by three brothers Julius to the memory

of their parents. Thousands of Gauls took the name of JuHus in honour

of Caesar and Augustus. The style, which is essentially Grsco-Roman,

is appropriate to the period of Augustus. The reliefs again represent

captives.

Plates 29-32 are from photographs taken by Sir Alexander Binnie

33 (Fig. I) ARCH OF MARIUS, ORANGE 166

From a photograph by Neurdein. Apparently erected to the memory of C. Marius, who defeated the Teutons at Aquae Sextix in 102 B.C. The neighbourhood of Orange (Arausio) was the scene of a great Roman defeat three years earUer. But the style of the monument points to a date at least a century later. The style of the reUefs is dated by the best authorities in the reign of Tiberius. The name of the sculptor, Boudillus, appears to be Gallic

(Fig. 2) S. LORENZO, MILAN

From a photograph by Brogi. Remains of a handsome Corinthian colonnade which formerly belonged to the palace of Maximian. In the fourth century a.d., Mediolanum was frequently a place of imperial residence. In this period Milan was larger than Rome

34 BARBARIAN WOMAN, KNOWN AS " THUSNELDA " 168

From a photograph byAlinari. This famous statue, which stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi, at Florence, is popularly called after the wife of Arminius, who died in exile at Ravenna. It is probably a typical Teutonic captive and very possibly occupied a place in the niche of a triumphal arch. Mrs. Strong assigns it to the period of Trajan

xvii

TO »ACt PHTEJ I'Ail

35 (fig. I) ALTAR OF THE LARES OF AUGUSTUS i/i

From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. Augustus introduced Cxsar-worship into Rome by means of these altars to the Lares (household gods) and the Genius of Augustus. This altar dates from a.d. 2. Augustus is in the centre, Livia his wife to the right, and Gaius or Lucius Csesar to the left. Mrs. Strong describes these reliefs as " a scries of singular charm"

(Fig. 2) SACRIFICIAL SCENE, FROM THE ARA PACIS

From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Villa Medici, Rome. An earlier example of the favourite sacrificial theme. The artist has sacrificed, as usual, the hinder part of his victim to his desire to introduce as many as possible of the portrait studies. The relief has been much and badly restored

36 THE " TELLUS " GROUP, AR.\ PACIS 174

From a photograph by Brogi of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. Discussed on pp. 244-245

37 RELIEF, ARA PACIS 176

From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delle Terme, Rome. The scene is a sacrifice. The majestic bearded figure on the right is perhaps emblematical of the senate — one of the finest conceptions of Grsco-Roman art and little inferior to the elders on the Parthenon frieze. Above the attendants on the left is a small shrine of the Penates

38 SILVT:R plate from BOSCORE.VLE 178

1. A silver mirror-case of exquisite design : the central medallion represents Leda and the swan

2. One of the beautiful examples of Augustan art in which natural forms are used with brilliant decorative effect

From photographs by Giraudon of the originals in the Louvre

39 (Fig. I) GERM.\NICUS 180

Sardonyx cameo from the Carlisle collection. Photograph by Manscll & Co.

(Fig. 2) GEM OF AUGUSTUS : CAMEO OF VIENNA

Photograph by Mansell & Co. Sardonyx cameo probably by Dioscorides, A.D. 13

Below : German captives and Roman soldiers erecting a trophy Above : Augustus and Roma enthroned. Behind them are Earth, Ocean, and (?) the World, who is crowning him with the corona civica. Behind his head is his lucky sign — the constellation of Capricornus. Tiberius escorted by a Victory is stepping out of his triumphal chariot and Germanicus stands between

40 AUGUSTUS AND F.VMILY OF C^SARS : CAMEO 182

From a photograph by Manscll & Co. of the original in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The largest and finest sardonj-x cameo in existence. It is cut in five layers of the stone so that wonderful effects of tinting are produced, sometimes at the expense of the modelling. Tiberius and his mother Livia occupy the centre. Germanicus and his mother Antonia stand before him. The figures to the left may be Gaius

xviii

(Caligula) and the wife of Germanicus. Behind the throne Dnisiis is looking up to heaven, where the deified Augustus floats, surrounded by allegorical figures. Below are barbarian captives

41 (Figs. I and 3) STUCCO RELIEFS 184

From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the National Museum, Rome. Much of the ornamentation of Roman villas was in stucco or terra-cotta taken from the mould and often tinted. Both the flying Victory and the Bacchic relief showing a drunken Silenus are extremely graceful specimens of the art, both essentially Greek (Fig. 2) DECORATIVE ORNAMENT, ARA PACIS

From a photograph by Anderson of the fragment in the Museo delle Terme, Rome. A fine example of the naturalistic ornament of the Augustan period

42 (Fig. I) FRAGMENT OF AUGUSTAN ALTAR 188

From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delle Terme, Rome. Quoted by VVickhofI as " a triumph of the Augustan illusionist style " : a design of plane-leaves, admirable in fidelity to nature. Observe the rich mouldings of the framework (Fig. 2) ROMAN RELIEF

From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the British Museum. From the tomb of a poet. The Muse stands before him holding a tragic mask

43 ALTAR OF AJMEMPTUS 190

From a photograph by Giraudon of the original in the Louvre. The inscription shows that this altar was dedicated to the spirits of Amemptus, afreedman of the Empress Livia. It belongs therefore to about a.d. 25. From the types of ornament employed one may conjecture that Amemptus was a Greek actor and musician. The decorative efFect is very charming and the detail most beautifully worked out

44 (Fig. I) THE TEMPLE OF SATURN, FORUM, ROME 192

Eight Ionic unfluted columns with part of the entablature. The columns stand upon a lofty base. The Temple of Saturn, which contained the treasury of the senate, was rebuilt in 42 B.C. (Fig. 2) THE TEMPLE OF MATER M.\TUTA, ROME

From photographs by R. C. Smith. The most complete example of the round temple still existing, the Temple of Vesta in the Forum having disappeared. This is probably a temple of " Mother Da\\'ii." The five Corinthian columns of Pentelic marble were probably imported from Greece. Most authorities assign it to the Augustan restoration, but others place it among the earliest Republican works. The tiled roof is of course modem, and somewhat spoils its effect. This little temple stood in the Forum Boarium (cattle market)

45 PORCH AND INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON, ROME 196

From photographs by Anderson and Brogi. See p. 251

46 MAISON CARREE, NISMES 198

From a photograph kindly supplied by Sir Alexander Binnie. Perhaps the finest, certainly the most complete example of Graeco-Roman architecture. The style is Corinthian, but characteristic Roman

xix

TO FACI

rxci developments are the high podium or base, and the fact that the surrounding peristyle is " engaged " or attached to the wall except in front (pseudo-peripteral). This temple was dedicated to M. Aurelius and L. Verus. It was surrounded by an open space and then a Corinthian colonnade. Nismes, once the centre of a flourishing trade in cheese, is especially rich in Roman remains

47 THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME 200

From a photograph by Anderson. The theatre, built by Augustus in 13 B.C. in memory of his ill-fated nephew, was constructed in three tiers, Doric, Ionic, and ODrinthian. The upper story has disappeared, and the elevation of the ground floor has been spoilt by the rise in the level of the ground

48 INNER COURT, FARNESE PALACE, ROME 202

From a photograph by Anderson. The splendid cortile of the Farncse Palace, designed by Michael Angelo, is copied from the Theatre of Marcellus, exhibiting the same succession of orders. The juxtaposition of these two plates should assist the reader's imagination to re-create the original splendours of Roman architecture from the existing ruins

49 (Fig. I) COLONNADE OF OCTAVIA 204

From a photograph by Anderson. Erected by Augustus in honour of his beloved sister, who was married first to M. Marcellus then to M. Antony. She was the mother of Marcellus, great-grandmother of Nero and C>l'gula. She died in II B.C. The colonnade was probably built some years before her death. It enclosed the temples of Jupiter Stator and Juno ; it also contained a public library and a senate-house which was destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus

(Fig. 2) ROMAN BAS-RELIEF

From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. A sacrifice, probably a work of the time of Domitian. The heads, most of them portraits, are of admirable execution, but the overcrowded design is unpleasing. The architectural background is t}'pical of the Flavian period. This slab was used by Raphael in his cartoon of Paul and Barnabas at Lystra

50 COIN PLATE : ROMAN EMPERORS ao6

1. Nero 5. Marcus Aurelius

2. Trajan 6. Domitian

3. Vespasian 7. Vitellius

4. Hadrian 8. Galba From originals in the British Museum

51 HADRIAN'S WALL : NEAR HOUSESTEADS (BORCOVICIUM),

NORTHUMBERLAND 210

From a photograph by Gibson & Son. See pp. 261-262

From a photograph by Frith. An example of mihtary architecture, truly Roman in character. Probably dates from the time of Gallientis (&.D. 260) XX

PAT.B

53 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN— I 216

On the left, the emperor surrounded by his staff is haranguing his troops. Observe how the ranks of the army are portrayed in file. On the right, fortifications are being constructed (Cichorius, plate xi)

54 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN— II 218

On the left, horses are being transported across the Danube ; Trajan is ,

seen steering his galley, sheltered by a canopy. On the right he is !

landing at the gates of a Roman town on the river banks. The temples are visible within the walls (Cichorius, plate ixvi) '

55 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN— III 220

A cavalry battle, in which the Romans are charging the mail-clad

Sarmatians. The reader will notice the resemblance between the \

latter and the Norman knights of the Bayeux tapestry (Cichorius,

plate xxviii)

56 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN'S COLUIVIN- IV 222

On the left the Romans, in Ustuio formation, are attacking a Dacian

fortress. In the centre Trajan is receiving the heads of the defeated

enemy (Cichorius, plate h)

These four plates are reproduced by special permission from Prof.

Cichorius's " Die Reliefs der Traianssaule " (Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1