The first century of Christianity

Front matter

Baers pintetscsons toes:

Baas

Cox, Homersham, 1821-1897.

Preface

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Turs work is an attempt to present in a popular and concise form an account of the Church in the first century of the Christian era.

The multitude of books which deal with various branches of this subject is so vast that any addition to their number may seem at first sight superfluous. But the design of this essay is distinct. The standard treatises are usually of great size, discuss theological questions, are addressed to the learned, and are rarely ‘ understanded of the people;’ whereas this volume is a mere compendium of the history of early Christianity given in as simple a form as possible; and religious and doctrinal topics are scrupulously excluded.

The Christian writers of the Apostolic and next succeeding age are remarkable for the sobriety and simplicity of their laneuage, and are undoubtedly truthful. Far different from them were the majority of ecclesiastical scribes in the middle ages. Most of these authors were strangely uncritical and credulous, and mixed legend and history together so indiscriminately that their works are almost valueless for historical purposes. The great ecclesiastical historians of modern times—among whom English divines of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries hold a conspicuous position—write in a very different

Vili PREFACE spirit. Their compositions exhibit prodigious learning and conscientious research, and yet even they occasionally adopt conclusions which are modified by subsequent investigation.

The extreme difficulty of writing a history of the First Century of Christianity arises from the fragmentary nature of the materials. The apostles and evangelists, addressing men of their own age, naturally deemed it unnecessary to record many events and circumstances with which their hearers were familiar. For instance, the New Testament gives very little information respecting the lives and acts of the apostles after the period covered by 8. Luke’s narrative. The churches of the first century had indeed their own records or registers, and many of these were extant in the times of Tertullian and Eusebius, and were examined by those writers, as they expressly state. But these precious documents have long since perished, and only fragments have been preserved. The composition of a history of the first century is mainly a process of patching together these and other fragments, and that process has occasioned endless controversy. Every conclusion of importance has been discussed and re-discussed, but it may be safely asserted that the effect of repeated investigation has been to eliminate errors and to add to our knowledge of the primitive church. A powerful apparatus of criticism has been applied to the earliest Christian writings; of all this thought and labour the most recent inquirer is the heir; and consequently—paradoxical as the statement might otherwise appear—the history of the first Christians is better understood now than it was fourteen or fifteen hundred years ago.

Again, the materials themselves have received valuable accessions in modern times by the discovery of precious manuscripts. Some of these discoveries are very remarkable,

PREFACE ix and among them the following examples may be cited. In the last century the learned Muratori found in the great Ambrosian Library at Milan the earliest known list of the Canonical Books of the New Testament. Three Syriac Epistles of §. Ignatius were found by Archdeacon Tattam at Nitria in Keypt, in the year 1838. .Ten years later Dr. Cureton discovered among the manuscripts in the British Museum the ‘Ancient Syriac Documents,’ subsequently edited by him, some portions of which are as old asthe second century. The Treatise of Hippolytus on Heresies, first published in 1851, gives valuable information respecting the history of the canon of the New Testament. A most remarkable discovery was made at Constantinople in 1877 of a missing portion of the Epistle of S. Clement to the Corinthians; and even within the last two years a valuable Christian document of the second century—the ‘ Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ’—has been brought to light. |

The present work is founded almost entirely upon writings of the first and second centuries. The writers of those times were obviously more likely to be well informed respecting primitive Christianity than later authors, and were free from temptation to make mis-statements.

In quotations from the New Testament the Authorised Version has not always been adopted in this book; but whenever a different translation is adopted the reason for it is explained either in the text or in the notes.

Every reference has been very carefully verified ; and, in the very few instances in which authorities are cited at second hand, that circumstance is noted. It has, however, been one of the guiding principles of this essay to avoid bare references, and to quote copiously the authorities themselves, so that the x PREFACE reader may be able to judge for himself of the nature and value of their testimony.

To that very eminent Oriental and Hebrew scholar, the Reverend John Meadows Rodwell; and two very learned Greek scholars, the Reverend John Langhorne, of Rochester Cathedral School, and the Reverend Thomas Walker, of Tonbridge School, the Author is under the greatest obligations, for the extreme kindness with which they have examined many of the proof-sheets of this work, and for their most valuable suggestions and corrections.

GO UNe TENS:

Chapter I. The Roman Provinces

Extent of the Roman Empire, 1. Government of the Provinces, 3. Proconsuls, 4. Their official reports, 5. Recall of Pilate, 6. Legates and procurators, 6. Protection of the Central Government at Rome, 7. Imperial and senatorial provinces, 9. Taxation, 9. Publicans, 10. Assessment of Judea, 11. Joseph at Bethlehem, 10. Breviarium of Augustus,12. Common use of the Greek language, 12. Aramaic, 14. MHellenists or Grecian Jews, 14.

Chapter II. The Jews Before The Christian Era

Babylonish captivity, 15. The Maccabees, 16. First treaty of the Jews with Rome, 16. End of the Theocracy, 17. Judea subjugated by Pompey, 18. Herod ‘The Great,’ 19. He murders his wife, 20; her brother, 21; and his own sons, 22. Massacre in Bethlehem, 23. Death of Herod, 24. Division of his kingdom, 25. Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip, 25. Appeal of the Jews to Augustus, 26.

Chapter III. Judha Under Roman Governors

Date of the Nativity, 29. The Jews under Augustus and Tiberius, 31. Government of Pilate, 32. Caligula orders his statue to be erected in the temple, 33. Revokes the order, 3 . Herod Agrippa, 35.

Chapter IV. The Temple, The Synagogue, And The Sanhedrim

The Jewish religion tolerated, 38. The temple as rebuilt by Herod, 38. The Synagogue, 41. The Sanhedrim, 43. The functions of Sanhedrim, 44. Its power under the Roman rule,48. Priests, 49. Scribes,50. Elders, 51.

Xi CONTENTS

Chapter V. The Jews Of The Dispersion

Jews dispersed throughout the Roman Empire, 53. Their pilgrimages to Jerusalem, 54. Alexandrian Jews, 55. Contributions to the temple, 57.

Vast treasure of the temple, 58.

Chapter VI. The Church At Jerusalem

Jewish morality, 60. Christianity denounced by the Sanhedrim, 62. Election of 8. Matthias, 63. §. James, Bishop of Jerusalem, 65. His authority, 66. The office of S. Peter, 67. Council of Jerusalem, 68. Decrees of the Council, 69. Constitution and work of the Church at Jerusalem, 71. Daily life of Jewish Christians, 72. Their worship, 73. Martyrdom of S. James the Elder, 75. Felix, Governor of Judsea, 78. Infamous character of Bernice, 79. Misrule of Felix, 80. Trial of S. Paul before the Sanhedrim, 81. Conspiracy to murder him, 82. His trial before Felix, 83. Felix recalled, 83. Trial of 8S. Paul before Festus and Agrippa, 84. Appeal to Cesar, 86. Death of S. James the Bishop, 87. The other apostles quit Jerusalem, 89. The Church of Jerusalem removed to Pella, 90.

Chapter VII. The Fall Of Jerusalem

Sieges of Jerusalem before the Christian era, 91. Revolt against Roman rule, 93. Expectation of Messiah, 94. Vespasian sent to subdue Judea, 95. Vespasian made Emperor, 96. Titus succeeds to the command of the Roman army in Judea, 96. Jerusalem besieged, 97; and taken,100. The temple destroyed, 101. The triumph celebrated at Rome, 103. The arch of Titus, 104

Chapter VIII. Eastern Churches

First Christian Missions, 105. Church of Samaria, 106. Unity of the Church, 106. Jerusalem the metropolis of Christendom, 108. Journeys of S. Paul, 108. His captivity at Rome and liberation, 111. Whether he visited Spain, 113. Journeys of S. Peter, 114. ‘The Church that is at Babylon,’ 116. S. Peter at Antioch, 119. S. John at Ephesus, 120. Churches of the Apocalypse, 121. Ephesus, 121. Smyrna,123. Pergamos, 125. Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 126. §. John and the robber, 129. Death of S.John, 131. S. Philip at Hierapolis, 131. SS. Thomas, Andrew,

CONTENTS Xili and Bartholomew, 132. Church of Edessa, 133. Spurious letter attributed to Christ, 134. Church of Alexandria, 135. Alexandrian Library, 136. S. Mark at Alexandria, 137. Rapid diffusion of Christianity, 138. Its effect, 139.

Chapter IX. The State Of Rome

Jews in Rome numerous, 140. Tolerated by Julius Cesar and Augustus, 140. Banished by Claudius, 141. Unpopular in the first century, 141. Absurd opinions of Tacitus respecting the Jews, 142. Roman morals, 143. Condition of slaves, 141. Wholesale slaughter of slaves of Pedanius Secundus,

144. Foreign deities proscribed, 146. Ancient Roman virtues, 147. Degradation of morals, 148. Overthrow of the Republic, 148. Profligacy in the reign of Tiberius, 149. Efforts of the Aidiles, 149. Sensuality in the reigns of Caligula and Nero general, but not universal, 150. Remarkable funeral inscriptions, 150. Marriage and divorce, 151. Licentious spectacles, 152. Gladiators, 152.

Chapter X. The Church At Rome

First preaching of Christianity at Rome, 154. Expulsion of Jews from Rome, 155. Aquila and Priscilla, 156. Return of Jews to Rome, 157, Christian Church established there, 157. Christianity in households of wealthy Romans, 158. The primitive church composed mainly of Jews and Grecians, 159. Their number, 159. S. Paul carried captive to Rome, 160. His reception by converts and other Jews,161. His two years’ residence at Rome, 162. Writes several epistles there, 164. Is released, and returns to his labours in the East, 165. Conduct of Nero, 166. Great fire at Rome, 166. Christians tortured on account of it, 169. Persecution by Nero, 170. S. Paul arrested and sent to Rome a second time, 172. Accusations against him, 174. Is tried before Nero and condemned to death, 175.

Chapter XI. 8. Peter At Rome

Martyrdom of S. Peter mentioned by S. Clement,178. By Dionysius of Corinth, 180. By S. Ireneus, 182. By Caius, 182. By Hippolytus, 183. By Tertullian, 183. In the public archives of Rome, 183. The Tabularium, 184. Stay of S. Peter in Rome, 185. Error of S. Jerome, 185. Preaching of S. Peter at Rome, 185. His relation to the Roman Church, 188. That Church established by SS. Peter and Paul jointly, 189. Their fellowship in life and death, 192.

X1V CONTENTS

Chapter XII. The Close Of The First Century

Death of Nero, 198. Succeeding emperors, 193. Vespasian and Titus, 194. Massacre of Jews, 194. The Colosseum, 195. Domitian’s persecution, 195. The double drachma, 196. Antoninus Verus, 196. Flavius Clemens put to death, 197. Flavia Domitilla banished,197. Christians accused of atheism, 197. Cemetery of Domitilla, 198. Christians in the higher ranks of society, 199. The Emperor Antonine nursed by a Christian slave, 199. Trajan, 199. His correspondence with Pliny, 200. Pliny’s treatment of Christians, 201. Decay of Pagan worship, 201. Persecution of Pontus and Bithynia, 202. Informers, 202. Clubs or guilds, 202. Deaconesses put to torture, 203. Trajan’s reply to Pliny, 204. ‘Ancient Syriac Documents,’ 204. Trajan’s Edict of Toleration, 205. Persecutions at Edessa, 205. At Antioch, 206. Ignatius condemned to death, 206. Privileges of Roman citizens, 206. Lex Valeria, 206. Legal position of Christians, 207. ‘The blood of the Christians is the seed of the faith,’ 208. The letters of Pliny and Trajan in Latin, 209.

Chapter XIII. The Ministers Of The Church

The constitution of churches, 211. Meaning of the words bishop and presbyter, 212. S. James the first diocesan, 213. His authority in the Church, 218. Mission of SS. Timothy and Titus, 215. Their office, 217. Simeon, second Bishop of Jerusalem, 219. §. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, 219. Bishops of other churches, 220. Election of bishops, 223. Form of ordination, 225. Functions of bishops, 226. Excommunication, 227. Assemblies of the Church, 227. Apostolic succession, 229. Ordination of presbyters, 229. Schisms at Corinth, 230. Presbyters ordained by the bishop and elders together, 233. Laying on of hands, 233. Preaching by laymen, 234. Presbyters, a distinct order, 235. ‘They alone celebrated the Eucharist, 236. Deacons, 238; in the Church of Jerusalem, 238. The duties of deacons, 239. Baptism by deacons, 240. Mode of appointing them, 241. The Seven appointed ‘to serve tables,’ 241. Docimasia, 241. Deaconesses, 242. Phoebe of Cenchrea, 243. Church-widows, 243. Their enrolment, 244. Their vows, 244. Second marriage of, 244. Ordination of, 245. Duties of, 245. Constitution of the Church and Synagogue compared, 246. Office of Chazzan, 247. Effect of the Church system, 247,

Chapter XIV. The Unity Of The Church

Communication between churches, 249. Interchange of epistles, 249. Mutual relief by alms, 249. Synods or councils of the Apostolic age, 250; of

CONTENTS XV second century, 251. Sympathy with martyrs, 252. Schism rebuked by S. Clement, 253. Relation of the Church of Rome to other churches, 254. Apostolic churches to be consulted, 255, Description of the Church of Rome by Ireneus, 256. Controversy about Easter, 257. Victor, Bishop ot Rome, threatens to excommunicate Eastern bishops, 258. They refuse to submit to him, 258, He is rebuked by Ireneus, 258. Polycarp and Anicetus, 259. The Church of Rome had no supremacy, 260. Church councils to settle questions of doctrine, 261; and the canon of Scripture, 261. Oral and written tradition, 262. Apostles’ Creed, 263. Uniformity of doctrine, 263. Causes of, 263. Instruction of catechumens, 263. Excommunication, 264. One Catholic and Apostolic Church, 265,

CHAPTER XY.

BAPTISM.

Jewish baptism of proselytes, 267. Laws relating to proselytes, 267. Compulsory proselytism, 268. The Asmoncean princes, 268. Tolerance of Josephus, 269. Social position of proselytes, 269. Ceremonial uncleanness and purification, 269. Ablutions and washings, 270. Rabbinical laws reduced to order by Hillel and Shammai, 271. Punishment for profaning the temple, 272. Proselytes baptised before circumcision, 273. Baptism of children, 274. Meaning of the phrase ‘born again,’ 274. Baptism of S. John, 275; of the Essenes, 276. Hemerobaptists, 276. Lustrations among the Greeks and Romans, 276. Immersion and affusion, 277. Baptism described by Justin, 277; by Tertullian, 278. Fasting before baptism, 278. The ‘ Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,’ 278. The ‘ Two ways,’ 278. Time of baptism, 279. Sponsors, 279. Confirmation unction and imposition of hands, 280.

Chapter XVI. The Eucharist And The Love Feast

The time of the Last Supper, 281. The Passover, 281. The account of the Last Supper by S. Matthew, 282. By S. Mark, 282. By S. Luke, 283. By S. John, 288. The date of the Crucifixion, 285. The Feast of Unleavened Bread, 285. The ‘Preparation of the Passover,’ 286. The Preparation of the Sabbath, 287. Offering of first-fruits, 287. Observance by Christ of the Mosaic law, 288. Easter called Passover by early Fathers, 288. Fasting before Passover, 289. Temple ceremonies of the Passover, 290. Slaying of the lambs, 290. The Hallel, 290. Domestic ceremonies of the Passover, 291. The four cups of wine mingled with water, 292. The bitter herbs, 293. The breaking of bread, 294. The Hallel, 295. The Paschal rites compared with the Gospel accounts of the Last Supper, 296. Frequent Eucharists of the first Christians, 299. The ‘large upper room,’ 299. The Eucharist celebrated at Troas by 8S. Paul, 300. Eutychus, 300. The Eucharist at Corinth, 301. The Eucharist celebrated by Polycarp at Rome, 302. The Sacrament mentioned by Pliny, a xvi CONTENTS ,

303. Eucharist regularly celebrated before dawn on Sunday, 303. Hucharist described by Justin Martyr, 303. Proanaphoral and anaphoral parts of the service, 305. Lections, homily, and dismissal of catechumens, 306. The wine mingled with water, 307. Kiss of peace, 307. Oblations, 307. The reserved sacrament, 308. Love feasts, 309. Common meals of Jews and Greeks, 309. Heteriz, or clubs, 309. Erub, a Jewish custom, 310. Agape, or love feast, described by Tertullian, 311. The Eucharist distinct from the love feast, and always eaten before dawn. Fasting before Communion, 314.

Chapter XVII. Sunday

References in the New Testament to the first day of the week, 316. The journey to Emmaus on Sunday, 318. S. Paul travelled on Sunday from Troas to Assos, 319. Christian assemblies before dawn on the Lord’s day, 322. The Lord’s-day not a substitute for the Sabbath, 324. The Sabbath only a Jewish institution, 325. The patriarchs did not observe the Sabbath, 327. The Sabbath tolerated but not enjoined by the Apostles and early Fathers, 329. The manner in which the first Christians observed the day, 329. The Jewish Sabbath a day of recreation and festivity, 331.

Chapter XVIII. The Septuagint And The New Testament

The first Christians had no New Testament, 332. The canon never completely settled, 333. Manner of reading the Old Testament in synagogues. The Hebrew language superseded by the Aramaic or Chaldee, 334. The methurgeman or interpreter, 335. The interpreter in Christian congregations, 335. The Old Testament translated into Greek, 336. The history of the Septuagint according to Josephus and Aristeas, 337. Probable derivation of the word Septuagint, 339. Character of that version, 341. It is continually cited in the New Testament, 341. It frequently differs from ‘he Hebrew original, 341. It was generally used by Christians, 342. The Gospel at first taught orally, 343. Numerous primitive memoirs of Christ, 344. Christian tradition, 346. Origin of the New Testament, 347. Apostolic authority of the Canonical Books, 349. Mode in which the canon was settled, 349. Gospel of S. Matthew, 351. Of S. Mark, 352. Of S. Luke, 353. OfS. John, 354. Evidence of early Fathers respecting this Gospel, 354. Evidence of the Peshito, the Muratorian Fragment, and the Diatessaron of Tatian, 357. Internal evidence from reference to the pool of Bethesda, 359. Character of this Gospel, 359. The Muratorian Fragment, 361. Discovered by Muratori, 361. Translation of the Fragment, 362. Comment upon it, 365. Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, 367. The Muratorian or Western Canon compared with that of the Peshito or Eastern Canon, 369. Nature and causes of the differences, 370. The conclusions of Eusebius, 371.

CONTENTS XVli

Chapter XIX. Liturgies And Prayers

Relation of Christian to Jewish liturgies, 374. Hymn sung at the Festival of First-Fruits, 374. Form used at the giving of tithes, 375. Temple service restored by Ezra and Nehemiah, 376. Temple prayers described by Josephus and Philo, 376. The Shemoneh Esreh, or Highteen Benedictions, 377. The Shema, 878. Some daily prayers still extant, 378. The Kaddish, 370. Resembance of the Kaddish to part of the Lord’s Prayer, 379. Form used before reading the lessons, 381. The Jewish lectionary, 381. The discourse after the lessons, 381. Jewish and Christian prayers compared, 382. The Tersanctus, 383. Liturgical portion of the Epistle of Clement, 384. Amen in responses, 385. Sursum Corda, 385. Form of Christian evening prayer, 385. Morning prayer, 386. Relation of Christian prayers to each other, 388. Form of prayer taught by John the Baptist, 388. Gradual formation of the Christian liturgies, 389. Liturgical regulations in the New Testament, 390. Psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs distinguished, 390. Fragments of hymns in the New Testament, 391. Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions, 392. Newly recovered portion of the Epistle of S. Clement, 395. The Tersanctus, or Trisagion, similar in all the most ancient liturgies, 397. Form of Eucharistic liturgy, 398.. Apostolic origin of liturgies, 400. Quotation by S. Paul from a liturgy, 401. Description of Eucharist by Justin Martyr, 403. Its close accordance with the most ancient liturgies, 405.

Chapter XX. Ritual

The first Christians worshipped in private houses, 410. Andin catacombs, 411. Christians prayed towards the Hast, 412. Arrangements of their places of assemblies, 413. Singing in antiphony, 414. Attitudes of prayer, 415. Washing of the hands before prayer, 417. The ministry of the Synagogue and of the Church were similar, 417. The Chazzan, or attendant minister of the Synagogue, 418. Vestments of Christian ministers, 419. The petalum, or golden mitre-plate, worn by the Apostles John and James, Daily worship of Christians, 421. Their worship on Sunday, 421.

Chapter XXI. Writers Of The First And Second Centuries

Life and writings of Clement of Rome, 423. Of Polycarp, 426. Of Ignati s 431. Of Justin Martyr, 435. Of Clement of Alexandria, 439. Of Ireneus, 441. Of Tertullian, 443. Of Origen, 443. Of Eusebeus, 444. Of Josephus, 446,

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“THE

FIRST CENTURY OF CHRISTIANITY.

Chapter I. The Roman Provinces

Tue rapid diffusion of Christianity in the first century after it began to be preached is one of the marvels. of history. In order to understand how that marvel was accomplished we must know something of the extent and condition of the Roman empire.

Rome, it has often been said, was the mistress of the world; and this statement is substantially correct. But the world of classic writers was far smaller than ours. Their geographical knowledge was confined to the northern hemisphere, and to much less than half of that. Eastward, the greater part of India and China was unknown. Westward, their knowledge did not extend beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. Poets spoke of islands of the blest which existed somewhere in what we call the Atlantic Ocean. But they existed only in poetic visions; and the vast continent of America was utterly unknown.

The world with which the Romans were most familiar included the populous and vast countries which bordered on the Mediterranean and Black Sea. These great inland waters were the highways of the ancient world and the chief means of communication. Indeed, they answered to a great extent to our modern railways. But the magnetic compass was unknown, and long voyages out of sight of land were therefore

Sy impracticable. Navigation was carried on by coasting vessels, which generally lay to at night. ‘A night and a day have I been in the deep,’ says S. Paul, including this among the oreatest trials of his hfe.

A glance at a map of the western hemisphere shows how extremely well the Mediterranean and the adjoining seas were adapted for intercourse restricted to short voyages. Those waters laved the shores of the fairest and most illustrious countries upon earth. Egypt, Palestine, Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor—all the nations most renowned for arts, letters, or industry, besides Spain and Southern Gaul—were in this way connected with Rome.

In the reign of Caesar Augustus, says §. Luke, a decree went out that all the world should be taxed. The word which in our usual English version is translated ‘taxed,’ and in the Revised Version ‘enrolled,’ would be better rendered ‘assessed.’ The nature of that assessment will be considered hereafter. For the present this passage is cited to show that S. Luke considered the world—in the Greek, the inhabited earth—co-extensive with the Roman empire.

In somewhat the same way the poet Ovid says that when Jupiter looks down from heaven upon the earth, he cannot behold anything which is not Roman—

and this statement does not exceed the limits of poetical license. In the reign of Augustus, however, the empire had not reached its greatest extent. His successors added many important provinces, including Assyria and Mesopotamia in the east and our island of Britain in the west. But it was the policy of Augustus to contract rather than widen the boundaries of the Roman dominions. In a State document written by his own hand, and read to the Senate immediately after his decease, he advised that the limits of the empire should not be enlarged.! His successor Tiberius acted on the same principle. Tacitus describes him sneeringly as a prince careless of extending the empire.? But.

’ Tacitus, Annals, b. i. c. 11. 2 Tacitus, Ib. b. iv. c. 32.

Tacitus never loses an opportunity of disparaging Tiberius ; and the context of the passage just cited shows that the historian himself preferred a spirited foreign policy to the arts of peace.

How did Rome manage to govern her far off provinces ? Considering the vast distances of many of them, the slowness of communication, and the turbulent spirit of many of the subject races, the success with which she contrived to keep her wide domains in order is wonderful.

A brief survey of the system of Roman provincial government will greatly help us in examining the condition of the Jews and Christian converts throughout that vast empire. In the first place it may be observed that during the first century of Christianity, though the government had ceased to be republican, consuls continued to be appointed annually as in the republican times. After their year of office consuls usually became proconsuls or governors of provinces. These valuable appointments were looked upon as perquisites of the consular office. The provinces were generally distributed by lot, but the distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among the persons entitled to them. A province was generally held for a year, but the time was often prolonged. Each governor had originally to account at Rome only for his administration, but a law was passed about sixty years before the Christian era, by which every governor was obliged to deposit two copies of his account in the two chief cities of his province, and to forward another copy to the treasury at Rome.'

The provinces were not all governed alike. Other great officers and servants of the State besides consuls were appointed governors. The posts being lucrative and honourable were regarded as rewards for eminent public services. For instance, when Agricola returned (4.p. 84) from his successful occupation of Britain, the honours of a triumph and public statue were decreed to him by the Senate, and the province of Syria, which happened to be vacant, was offered’ to him.?

1 Smith, Dict. of Antiquities, ‘ Provincia.’ 2 Tacitus, Agricola, c. 39.

The tenure of office differed in different places. Julius Cesar had decreed that persons of pretorian rank should hold provinees for only one year, and persons of consular rank for only two years. Cicero, in his second philippic against Antony, reproaches him for extending the time. Augustus subsequently prolonged the stay of the proconsuls, and this policy was continued by his successor. The reason assigned was a curious one, and shows that in frequent instances the province suffered from mal-administration. It was supposed that if the tenure of office were longer, the governors would not be in so great haste to get rich, as when they had only one year in which to fleece their unfortunate subjects.!

Still it must not be inferred that the dependencies of the Roman empire were always or even usually ill-governed. On the contrary, we have abundant proofs of care bestowed to prevent or punish abuses of power. The provincials had a right which they frequently exercised of appealing to the Roman Senate or Emperor, and a governor who betrayed the interests of the State was liable to the penalties of majestas, which is nearly equivalent to the English crime of treason.

A governor might be impeached very much in the same way, to take a familiar instance, as Warren Hastings was impeached in the last century upon charges of mis-government of India. A very remarkable instance of the kind is the prosecution of Verres, Governor of Sicily, of which we have ample details in two celebrated speeches of Cicero. The circumstances occurred more than seventy years before the Christian era, but they well illustrate the condition of the provinces at a later period. Verres was prosecuted under a law called, from the name of its author, the Calpurnian law, by which a body of jurors presided over by a praetor was appointed to try offences committed by ex-governors. Cicero himself went to Sicily to collect evidence, and worked so assiduously that in fifty days he was ready to open the impeachment; and armed with a mass of documents and accompanied by a crowd of witnesses he took ship for Rome, where he arrived

1 Dion. lv. 28. Josephus, Antig. xviii. 7, s. 5.

two months before he was expected. The court met in the Temple of Castor.

From the foot of Mount Taurus, from the shores of the Black Sea, from the many cities of the Grecian mainland, from many islands of the Augean, from every city or market town of Sicily deputations thronged to Rome. In the porticoes and on the steps of the temple, in the area of the Forum, in the colonnades that surrounded it, on the housetops and on the overlooking declivities were stationed dense and eager crowds of impoverished heirs and their guardians, bankrupt publicans and corn merchants, fathers bewailing their children carried off to the pretor’s harem, children mourning for their parents dead in the pretor’s dungeons.!

The formal charge against Verres was that he had acted rapaciously and cruelly towards Roman citizens and allies, and had carried off from Sicily forty -millions of sesterces. The examination of the witnesses lasted nine days ; but Verres soon saw that the evidence was too strong for him, and on the third day after the commencement of the trial he fled from Rome. He was condemned to banishment, and heavily fined.

It would be easy to multiply instances of the prosecution of governors of provinces. One which has more immediate relation to the subject before us is the recall of Pontius Puiate from the government of Judea.

It has been already stated that governors of provinces were required to keep official records of their administration. The records so kept by Pilate are twice mentioned by Justin Martyr.? In one place, after referring to the Crucifixion, he says, ‘And that these things did happen you can ascertain from the acts of Pontius Pilate,’ and in another chapter he again mentions these acts. These accounts sent by Pilate to the Emperor Tiberius are supposed to have been destroyed at an early period, in consequence of the unfavourable appeals which Christians constantly made to them.? Tertullian * says also, ‘ Pilate, who in his conscience was persuaded of the inno-

' Smith’s Greek and Roman Biography, Art. ‘ Verres.’ ? Justin Martyr, Apology, cc. 35 and 48. 3 Ante Nicene Library, vol. ii. p. 37 note. 4 Tertullian, Apology, c. 21.

cence of Christ, sent a full account of all these transactions to Tiberius Cesar.’ In the very curious ‘Ancient Syriac Documents’ it is stated that Pilate was recalled on account of his conduct with reference to the death of Christ. But this statement is not probable, for Pilate was not deposed until seven years after the Crucifixion. That may possibly have been one of the circumstances which led to his recall, though there is no_ trustworthy evidence that this was the case. Josephus attributes the recall of Pilate to an entirely different cause—complaints of the Samaritans. They charged him with extreme severity in repressing certain tumults which occurred in Samaria. His superior officer, the legate of Syria, sent him to Rome to answer this accusation. He arrived there immediately after the death of Tiberius, but was banished by the succeeding Emperor. TEHusebius states that Pilate ended his life by suicide.!