Elements of thought; or, First lessons in the knowledge of the mind: including familiar explanations of the terms employed on subjects relating to the intellectual powers

Contents

PAGE.

Preface v

Part I

Chap. I. On the use of familiar comparisons and colloquial phrases in explaining the nature and operations of the Mind.... 1 II. On the three chief excellencies of

Human Nature 12

III. On different States of the Mind to

which the word Thinking' is commonly applied.... 19

IV. On the formation of General Notions,

aud the use of General Words 31

V. On the meaning of the words Genus,

Species, and Generalization 37

VI. On the origin and nature of Abstract

Notions..., 44

VII. On different kinds of Abstract Notions.. 47 VIII. On the difference between Simple Abstract Notions, and Complex Abstract

Notions , 54

a2

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Chap. IX. On Analysis, Classification, and Arrangement 57

X. On the Analysis of Complex Abstract

Notions 64

XI. On Efforts of Abstraction of different

kinds 69

Part II

Containing, in Alphabetical order, brief and familiar explanations of the principal terms employed on subjects relating to the nature and operations of the Intellectual Powers 77

A Summary, exhibiting the mutual relation of the Words explained in the Vocabulary 201

Preface

The design of this volume is to impart, in a famine* form, elementary explanations and instructions on subjects connected with the intellectual faculties, — to afford gradual and easy exercises to the powers of abstraction, — and thus, to conduct the young reader, not perhaps by the most direct, i*HHby the most accessible path into that region of thought where the mind best acquires force, accuracy, and comprehension.

A writer who invites the attention of young persons to subjects which demand a continued effort of thought, is strongly tempted to win that attention by some promise of amusement; or to profess that he has the art of communicating knowledge without the cost of labour on the part of those who receive it. No such promise or profession will be offered in the present instance. The author believes that when the professed object is to give tone and vigour to the understanding by exertion, trivial digressions, and gaieties of style should be avoided. a3

Vlll PREFACE.

of occasional reference. The correlative terms are mentioned at the end of each article, in order that the explanations of connected subjects may be readily compared. A Summary at the end of the volume exhibits all the terms in their mutual dependance.

While it has been attempted to adapt the phraseology to the comprehension of intelligent and well-informed children, the volume is especially dedicated to the service of that numerous class of young persons who, having received only a common education, eagerly desire, as far as their engagements in active life will permit, to supply the defects consequent upon the partial and unconnected culture of the mind.

Ongar, April, 1822.

PART I.

Chap I. Introductory

On the use of familiar comparisons and colloquial

phrases in explaining the nature and

operations of the Mind.

When it is said that the Sun rises in the East, and sets in the West, every one knows that this manner of speaking does not truly describe the cause of the Sun's apparent motion through the heavens : it is a mode of expression which corresponds with what we see ; not with what we learn by more accurate observation and reflection.

But although this mode of speaking is not correct, yet it may serve the purposes of

B common conversation better than scientific phrases would do. And we may often reason very justly when the literal sense of the words we use is wholly incorrect : as for example ; when it is said that a Navigator who sails round the world, taking his course from Europe to the straits of Magellan, and from thence home by the Cape of Good Hope, will lose a day in his reckoning, because, as the Sun travels from East to West, every day will be a little lengthened as he proceeds.

This reasoning would not be more just, if, instead of saying that the Sun travels from East to West, we were to speak of the diurnal motion of. the Earth in astronomical terms.

A familiar style of expression, in which things are spoken as they appear to be, and not exactly as they are, is often to be preferred to a more scientific style ; because it is easily understood, and, generally, it is more concise.

This is the case, especially, when we have to speak of the powers, or operations, or notions of the mind ; because, as these subjects are in themselves rather difficult to be understood, it is necessary that they should be first introduced into the mind in the most familiar manner.

In this little volume, therefore, forms of expression will often be employed, "which represent the common imperfect notions that are formed concerning the operations of the mind, rather than those more accurate notions which we may adopt when we are able to think more patiently and clearly on the subject : we must at present speak of the mind in the same familiar style that we employ when we say of the Sun, that it rises and sets; or that it travels through the heavens.

As the young reader gradually becomes familiar with subjects of this kind, which require some effort of the understanding, he will be able to think of them more easily ; to comprehend them more perfectly ; and to speak of them more correctly.

There are three different styles, or modes of expression, in which the same idea may be conveyed.

The first is the Colloquial style, or the style of common conversation.

The second is the Figurative style.

The third is the Philosophical style.

I. The colloquial style. It has already been said that in common conversation we speak b2 of things as they appear to us at a first glance, and not according to those more accurate notions concerning them which are acquired by careful examination and reflection. As, in the instance just mentioned, we are used to say that the Sun rises and sets, or that it travels from East to West ; because it appears to move, while the Earth stands still ; yet we know, while we employ these expressions, that the very reverse of this is true.

The piston of a pump is said to suck the water into the barrel : this is a coiloqual expression. In truth, it is the weight of the external air which lifts, or drives the water into the vacant space left in the barrel when the piston rises.

We say vermillion is red, though the redness is not in the substance itself, but in that part of the light which is thrown off from a body which perfectly imbibes the yellow and blue rays.

Many instances of this sort might be mentioned, in which we speak of things as they seem to be ; not as they are ; and yet, though the mode of expression is incorrect, or false, what is affirmed may be perfectly true : for example: The piston as was just before said, will raise water in a pump to the height of three and thirty feet : this is true, although it is not really the piston which raises the water, but the weight of the external air. What is meant is, that water in a pipe, where it is freed from the pressure of the atmosphere on its upper surface, will rise to the height of three and thirty feet.

In treating of subjects relating to the mind, a great number of colloquial expressions are employed, which are useful, and sufficient on common occasions, though they are very far from being strictly correct : for example : —

It is usual to describe the mind of man as consisting of several separate parts, or faculties,— as the imagination, — the understanding,— the memory, — the will, — the faculty of attention, — the power of abstraction, &c. We feel that we have several different kinds of thoughts, or states of mind ; and hence it is natural to us to fancy that the mind, like the body, consists of separate parts, or members, or organs. When we have learned to think patiently and accurately we may perhaps find that these colloquial expressions are not more b3 correct than those which speak of the Sun's rising or travelling ; or of a piston sucking up water. But in the mean time it should be remembered, that what is affirmed concerning the mind may be useful and true, so far as practical instruction is concerned, although the mode of expression is false or inaccurate. It appears then, that the colloquial style is that mode of speaking which corresponds with those inaccurate notions of things that are formed without careful examination or reflection ; but that yet it is true enough for the ordinary purposes of conversation, or instruction.

II. The figurative style is that manner of expressing our ideas in which we compare one thing to another. If, instead of saying colloquially, the Sun rises and sets, we say the Sun pursues his course through the heavens ; — this is a figurative expression ; because we compare the Sun to a man who runs a race; — as David beautifully says " he rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race." A great proportion of all conversation, as well as of public speaking and writing, consists of figurative expressions.

There are three reasons for using the figurative style.

1st. Because it is often the shortest and simplest way of expressing our meaning ; especially when we are describing the qualities, or feelings, or operations of the mind. If we say, such a man has a brilliant genius ; we convey a general notion of what we mean in two words ; whereas if the same notion were expressed without the aid of a comparison, perhaps fifty words must be used ; and a greater effort of the mind would be needed to comprehend what was meant. The mind of the person to whom this expression is applied, is compared to a lamp, burning with a clear and sparkling flame. Such a lamp sheds an agreeable splendour upon every object around it ; and it is more useful, as well as more agreeable than a dull lamp : therefore it attracts attention, while dull lamps about it are not regarded. On these accounts it may serve as a fit comparison when we wish to describe the mind of a man whose ideas follow each other rapidly ; who expresses them clearly, and in a manner that gives pleasure as well as information, to those who hear him. b 4

Common phrases, such as the following, — a tender spirit, a warm heart, a solid judgement, an enlightened understanding, a pure conscience, an elevated mind, — are all figurative expressions, in which a quality, or feeling, or operation of the mind is compared to some sensible object, for the sake of expressing in two words a notion which would require several sentences to describe it at length.

It is a useful exercise of the understanding to take such figurative phrases, and find out, — 1st. What the object is which is employed as a comparison : 2nd. What the notion is to which this object is compared : — and 3rd. In what respects the two things resemble each other.

Many figurative expressions of this kind will be employed in the following chapters. It must, however, always be remembered, that a figurative phrase can never perfectly convey the notion which it is used to represent : therefore, after a comparison has conveyed a general, or indistinct notion to the young reader's mind, he ought to examine the notion more carefully while he disregards the comparison.

2nd. The figurative style is often employed because it is the only way in which we can express some very imperfect notion ; or some fact which we scarcely understand at all.

For example : an idea is often said to be deeply impressed on the memory. This figurative expression is used because we do not know in what way a thought which has once been in the mind, is apt frequently to return^ or so to remain that we can, as often as we please, bring it back : all this we do not understand ; but we fancy it takes place in a way that may be compared to figures or letters being impressed upon wax, by a seal ; we use this comparison therefore, because it is the only way of expressing the incomplete notion we have of memory.

3rd. The figurative style is often employed merely because comparisons give pleasure to the mind : comparisons employed for the sake of the pleasure they offered to the imagination^ make up a great part of all poetry. When our object is to enquire after truth, or to teach what we know to others, we should avoid poetical comparisons ; because they divert the attention ; and because we are apt to fancy that we underb5 stand a subject, -when we are merely pleased with the beauty or aptness of a similitude.

III. The Philosophical Style.

After we have examined any object with close and patient attention ; and have made ourselves as perfectly acquainted with its nature as possible ; we endeavour to express all that we know concerning it, and nothing more, in the plainest and simplest words we can find. This is the Philosophical style.

To say that the Sun rises in the East, and sets in the West, is to speak colloquially.

To say that the Sun pursues his course through the heavens like a charioteer, is to speak figuratively.

To say that the apparent motion of the Sun from East to West is occasioned by the diurnal revolution of the Earth on its axis, is to speak philosophically.

Or if, instead of using the words diurnal and revolution, and axis, which are derived from the latin and greek languages, we were simply to say — the Earth turns round once every day like a wheel ; this more familiar mode of expression would be as philosophical as the other ; because it represents the fact with equal exactness.

Now, as the designof this volume is to afford easy exercises to the understanding upon subjects relating to the mind, the colloquial and figurative styles will chiefly be employed, in order to render this introduction to such subjects as familiar and comprehensible as possible. In proportion as the young reader's power of thinking is strengthened by instruction and exertion, he will be able to comprehend abstract propositions without the aid of comparisons, examples, and colloquial phrases : thus his notions will become gradually more philosophical; by which is merely meant that they will be more exactly true* b&

CHAP. II. On the three chief excellencies of Human Nature

If a person were shut up in a corner of some great machine, where there was only a glimmering of light; and if the machine were constantly in swift motion, and a hundred wheels were whirling round, while hammers and rollers and chains were making an incessant din, he would scarcely be able to gain a perfect and comprehensive knowledge of the construction and movements of the machine after many months of close attention.

But a person placed in such a situation would derive one great advantage from his peculiar circumstances, — namely, that he must acquire a habit of quick and accurate observation, and of close and patient attention : after some time, he would learn to distinguish obscure objects, and to comprehend intricate forms and movemerits, which, to others, would appear a mass of unintelligible confusion.

Now when we endeavour to comprehend the nature and the operations of our own minds we are like the person who is shut up within the machine while it continues in motion. It will be found more difficult to understand our own minds, than to comprehend the nature of external objects, which may be seen and handled. But, for this very reason, there is a peculiar advantage belonging to studies of this sort — namely, that those who accustom themselves to reflect upon the operations of their own minds, and to study the construction and the various changes of the rational principle, acquire the habit of thinking more patiently and more accurately than those who employ their thoughts only upon sensible objects.

A principal use, therefore, of such pursuits is, that they give more exercise to the powers of the mind than any other subjects ; so that even if they seemed to be in themselves of less practical importance than other studies they would still be indispensible to a complete education. The time to pay attention to them is that period of life when the understanding expands, and while it is most capable of improvement.

There are many persons who appear to think little ; or whose manner of thinking is always inaccurate and confused although their understandings are naturally strong. The reason often is that they have never learned to direct the course of their thoughts ; nor have the notions which fill their minds ever been set in order : they have not acquired the power of attending separately to single ideas, or of distinguishing clearly one from another. The greater the effort they make to think, the more confusion there seems to be among their ideas ; hence it happens that they are soon discouraged, and are willing to receive all their opinions from other men ; or perhaps they become positive in affirming what they are conscious that they do not understand. If such persons had early learned to think with ease and correctness they might have been less servile, or less dogmatical.

But besides this confusion of thought which discourages men from employing the natural powers of their understanding, the mind, like the body, has a constant tendency to sink into a state of inactivity. If a man indulges habits of bodily indolence, the natural powers of the constitution are impaired; and exertion becomes every year he lives more and more irksome. This wretched condition is, however, so painful in itself, so injurious to worldly interests, and so disgraceful, that it is comparatively but a few individuals who suffer themselves to sink into it.

• But the indolence of the mind is less apparent than the indolence of the body ; and those who are the most subject to it may scarcely themselves be aware of their real condition. Persons may converse as they hear others converse ; and do what they see others do : they may repeat what has been fixed in the memory, and believe what they have been taught, or what best pleases their particular tempers ; while their minds may be as completely inactive, and as incapable of exertion, as the body is during sleep. This, we must acknowledge, to be a very degraded state for a being whose mind is, by nature, capable of much more activity than his body : but yetr it is certain* that the minds of the greater part of mankind are in this inactive state.

It is, in great measure, owing to this general and habitual indolence of the human mind, that millions of men, from one generation to another, continue to be deluded by childish and wicked superstitions.

It is owing to this mental indolence in the mass of mankind, that one man, whose mind is active, often finds it easy to persuade thousands of his fellow-men to receive some fanciful opinions of his own : or to induce them to follow him in absurd and mischievous enterprises, which must bring miseries upon themselves and their neighbours.

It is, in part, owing to the indolence of the mind, that men, who have heard that there is a future life, which will be happy or wretched according to their conduct and the state of their minds in the present life; yet make themselves tranquil while they pay no sufficient regard to the means of securing happiness in the life to come.

The indolence of the mind prevents men from feeling themselves degraded while they are seeking chiefly the gratifications of the body, or those gratifications of the mind which are more foolish and useless than the painted toys of children.

111 the common affairs of life it may be observed, that men appear to be more influenced in their conduct by little motives, which they would be ashamed to confess, than by important and reasonable considerations : hence it is that the affairs of men are often turned about in a way that cannot be accounted for ; because the real motives of their actions are too small to be known or noticed. This also is chiefly owing to the habitual indolence of the mind which lessens the force of reason.

Men are often pleased with false opinions, even while they secretly suspect them to be false : and they are glad to be deceived when they wish to do what they know to be foolish or wicked. But if they thought more it would not be possible for them to deceive themselves so easily.

We must not imagine, however, that if the minds of men were more active, — if they thought oftener, and if they thought more justly, they would always believe what is true, and do what is right. It is not activity of mind alone, that is necessary to our well being ; for there are three things in which the true excellency of human nature consists :— *

The first and chief of them is Goodness, or virtue; which consists in loving God supremely, and in loving others as we love ourselves.

The second is Knowledge.

The third is the habit of thinking much, and the power of thinking justly.

Now we enter upon life without Goodness, without Knowledge, and without the active power of Thinking. These excellencies must be obtained by our own endeavours,, in the use of certain means.

Goodness is the gift of God, to, those who ask him for it, through our Saviour, Jesus Christ.

Knowledge is acquired by attention to what we see, hear, and read.

The power of Thinking is acquired and improved by the early cultivation and the constant exercise of the understanding.

Chap. III

On different States of the Mind to ivhich the word Thinking, is commonly applied.

The word Thinking is commonly applied to several very different states of the mind. We must learn to distinguish them.

I. There is one state of the mind in which the thoughts, or the images of objects that have been seen, or recollections of what has been heard, or felt, follow each other, without any action of the Will, in making a choice among them, or in exercising command over them. Ideas flow on before the fancy, like straws, sticks, and leaves, floating on the surface of a rapid stream. The mind in this state may be compared to a person sitting at a window, who idly stares at the crowd which passes before him : he has no kind of influence over those who are passing and repassing, standing or moving, in the Street. This state of the mind is called dreaming when the body sleeps ; and musing when the body is awake : but it is also very usual for persons to say that they have been thinking, when their minds have been in this state.

II. There is another state of the mind in which it is entirely occupied with the objects perceived by the senses ; it sees, hears, feels, tastes, smells ; or it has some internal sensation ; as hunger, thirst, pain. These perceptions or sensations excite emotions of desire, or fear? or satisfaction, or uneasiness, according to the nature of the objects which affect the senses, or the internal feelings. The particular state of the mind is the effect of some cause which operates upon it : as sealing wax becomes soft, when it is placed near the fire ; or brittle, when exposed to cold : it takes this shape, or that shape, according to the figure which is impressed upon it.

III. There is another state of the mind in which it exercises command over its thoughts : it chooses what particular state it will be in. It either attends to some external object ; or it disregards all external objects ; though perhaps they may be making strong impression upon

ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT. 2t

the senses, while it attends to its own operations. It commands one thought to stay ; or calls it back after it has passed by ; it brings several ideas together, and compares them ; or it separates ideas that come into the mind closely joined together. The mind in this state is not like the man who stares idly at a passing crowd ; but like the General of an army, who, not only perceives the objects before him ; but who directs, at his pleasure, all the movements that take place.

The two first are Passive states of the mind.

The third is the Active state of the Mind, and it is this only which is properly called Thinking.

It is important to perceive perfectly the distinction between the active and the passive states of the mind ; because the very wide differences which are observable in the character and condition of men greatly depend upon the degree in which their minds are? habitually, in an active or in a passive state.

Some examples will show what is meant by the words active and passive.

A thing is said to he passive when a change takes place in its state or in its situation from the operation of some external cause.

A cannon ball is passive, when it is thrown through the air by the combustion of gunpowder: the tower against which the ball strikes is passive, when it is overthrown by the blow : The Sea is passive, when it is tossed into billows by the wind.

A thing is said to be active, when it changes its own state or situation, or the state or situation of some other thing. (See the word cause, Part II.)

It might be said that the gunpowder which propels the ball is active ; or that the ball is active when it batters down the tower ; but more strictly speaking, the ball is as passive wrhen its progress is interrupted by the tower, as when it is thrown from the cannon : the gunpowder, also, is passive, when it is changed from a solid to a gaseous state by the action of fire.

Those things are most properly called active, which begin to act of themselves, without being influenced by any external cause. Now, the only things which begin to act of themselves are those which hare thought $ as animals, men, and other intelligent beings* All creatures, however, are passive as well as active. God alone is entirely active, because his state cannot be changed by any external cause ; and he is the beginning, or first cause of all the action which takes place in the universe. He has, however, granted to animals, to men, and to other intelligent creatures some degrees of active power. Different creatures possess active power in different degrees : the lowest degree of active power is that which makes a creature able to move its own body : the highest degree of active power is that which makes a creature able to command its own thoughts, or to change the state of its mind by Will. This will appear more plainly in some examples. We begin by mentioning things which are entirely passive.

1. A pebble which we gather from the sea shore is not in the same state in which it always has been : that which we now see is, probably, all that remains of what, a thousand years ago, was a large rough fragment of rock : it has been worn small, round, and smooth, by continual friction against other stones, during the ebbing and flowing of the tide. This pebble, therefore, is entirely passive, because the changes it has undergone have been wholly produced by external causes.

2. If we break a flint which has been dug from a chalk pit, we perceive the appearance of its having been formed gradually; there are faint granulations or laminae in it : it has shot out into irregular shapes ; and it has become surrounded with a thin white crust. In this gradual formation of the flint there is some slight resemblance to the kind of action which is called growth in vegetables and animals. Yet it is merely a resemblance ; for the siliceous matter has merely been deposited where space was left for it in the chalk. The flint that has gradually increased in size, is as passive as the pebble which has been gradually diminished.

3. A vegetable undergoes many great changes from the first bursting of the seed in the earth, to the time when the branches and the stem wither and decay. These changes are produced by the action of the sun, the air, the rain, the soil; along with that principle of life, of the nature of which we know nothing. A vegetable, therefore, may be said to be passive in the changes it undergoes ; yet vegetable life much more nearly resembles action proceeding from itself, than the growth of stones does.

4. There is one circumstance which is the occasion of most of the differences between Animals and Vegetables. It is this ; — the preservation of the life of a vegetable depends entirely upon what happens to it from without : its food, — air, water, and the juices of the soil, come to it : if they cease to come to it, it dies.