Preface
So many elementary text-books of Geology are available that it seems almost superfluous to add. to the number. Geology, however, is a science embracing, not only general principles of world-wide importance, but the application of those principles to the working-out of the history of a given locality or country.
In this work the general principles of geology are illus¬ trated, as far as possible, by Canadian examples, and the geology of Canada is given especial prominence in the section devoted to Historical Geology.
This method of treatment introduces the student to the subject by reference to localities and geological structures with which he is familiar and lays a local foundation on which the greater geological history of the whole world may be built.
While the book is primarily intended as an introduction to general geology, the emphasis laid on Canadian geological history makes it suitable to those desiring an outline of the geology of Canada. From this point of view, it is hoped that the work will be acceptable to the general reader and to persons engaged in the mining industry in Canada.
Toronto, Ontario.
v
TABLE OF CON TENTS a
Chapter I Introductory
PAGE
General Statement of the Aims of Geology . . . i
Subdivisions of Geology ....... 2
The Earth as a Whole ....... 3
The Earth’s Motions ........ 3
The Composition of the Earth ...... 4
CHAPTER II Physical properties of minerals
Common minerals forming igneous rocks ....
Non-essential and secondary minerals of igneous rocks . 1
Additional minerals of the metamorphic rocks . . .13
Minerals of the sedimentary rocks . . . . *15
Minerals used as ores of the metals . . . . .16
Other minerals of economic importance . . . .19
Igneous rocks ........ 22
Sedimentary rocks ........ 29
Metamorphic rocks . . . . . . . -33
CHAPTER III The Sources of Geological Energy
Hypogene Forces ......
Condition of the earth’s interior
Secular changes of level .....
Evidences of slow changes of level in recent times Changes of level in mountain building Depression of the sea bottom ....
Epeirogenesis and orogenesis ....
Diastrophism ......
vil to vO M viii ELEMENTARY
GEOLOGY
Hypogene Forces — continued
PAGE
Causes of changes of level
• • • •
^Movements in the asthenosphere
• • • •
Earthquakes ....
• • • •
Accompaniments of earthquakes
• • • •
Distribution of earthquakes
• • • •
Volcanoes ....
•
• • • •
Volcanic gases
.
Volcanoes with very fluid lavas
.
Volcanoes with explosive eruptions
Intermediate types of volcanoes
Calderas ....
Submarine volcanoes
Distribution of volcanoes
• 58
Causes of volcanoes.
• 58
Sources of the gases of volcanoes
Extinction of volcanoes .
. 61
Fumaroles and hot springs .
Geysers .....
Metamorphism ....
Effects of metamorphism on sedimentary rocks .
Epigene Forces ....
• 65
Weathering . . . .
• 65
Oxidation ....
Carbon dioxide
. 66
Change of temperature
Rain action ....
Ground water ....
Landslips ....
Artesian waters
Mineral springs
Caves . . . . •
■ . 72
* The work of running water
^ Watersheds and catchment basins
''Transporting power of rivers
''Types of work done by rivers .
"• Meanders ....
Deltas and estuaries
•"Features of youthful rivers
Peneplanation
The work of seas and lakes .
• 85
Destructive work of waves
• 85
Constructive work of waves
*pOcean currents
.
Tides .....
• • • •
The salts of the sea
• • • •
Deposits in salt lakes
• • • •
Marine deposits
• • • •
* The work of snow and ice .
• • • •
Glaciers ....
• • • •
. 96
* Icebergs ....
• • • •
. 101
Contents
IX
Epigene Forces — continued
Drift deposits ....
CHAPTER IV Attitude of stratified rocks . . . . . . .119
Zones of deformation and of fracture . . „ . . .121
Normal faults . . . . . . . .122
^.Reversed or thrust faults . . . . . .123
Discordances . . . . . . . . .125
Structure of Eruptive Rocks . . . . . .126
Superficial or volcanic structures . . . . . .126
Amygdaloids . . . . . . . .127
Pillow or ellipsoidal structure . . . . . .128
Structures caused by explosive eruptions . . . .128
Underground structures . . . . . . .129
Sheet-like forms and laccoliths . . . . . .129
Stocks or bosses . . . . . . . .132
Joints of eruptive rocks . . . . . . .132
Joints of coarser -grained eruptives . . . > . . 133
Structures of Schistose Rocks . . . . -134
Slaty cleavage . . . . . . . . 135
X
Part Ii.— Historical Geology Chapter I The Making Of The World
PAGE
General Remarks . . . . . . . .137
‘'The Nebular Theory ....... 138
'The Planetesimal Theory ....... 141
CHAPTER II
THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
/The Study and Correlation of Strata .... 143
Superposition . . . . . . . .144
Unconformities . . . . . . . .144
Basal conglomerates . . . . . . .143
Lithological characters . . . . . . .146
The Subdivisions of Geological Time .... 150
Table of the main divisions of geological time . . .154
CHAPTER III
THE NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
General Principles of Nomenclature and Classification . 155
Table showing Outline of the Classification of Organisms, i 56
CHAPTER IV
THE ARCHAEAN OR PRE-CAMBRIAN
The Grenville Series . . . . . . *163
Distribution of the Grenville . . . . . .165
Economic features of the Grenville . . . . .166
Attitude of the Grenville . . . . . .166
The Keewatin Series. . . . . . . .167
The Keewatin of the type locality . . . . .167
The Keewatin series in other regions of Canada . . .168
The Keewatin series in other countries . . . .169
The Coutchiching Series ....... 169
The Laurentian . . . . . . . .169
Other regions which may be Laurentian . . . .171
The Post-Laurentian Interval . . . . . *171
The Sudbury or Timiskaming Series ..... 172
General Features of the Earlier Pre-Cambrian . .174
CONTENTS xi
PAGE
The Algoman or Post-Sudburian Granites . . .175
The Post- Algoman Interval . . . . . . 175
The Huronian Series . . . . . . .175
The Animikie Series . . . . . . . .178
The Keweenawan Series . . . . . . .179
The Western Pre-Cambrian . . . . . .181
The Shuswap series . . . . . . .181
The Beltian series . . . . . . . .182
Conditions in the Later Pre-Cambrian . . . .182
Chapter V The Palaeozoic Era— The Cambrian Period
Physical Events in North America during the Cambrian . 185
The Cambrian System in Canada . . . . .187
The Life of the Cambrian. ...... 190
Cambrian fossils of the maritime provinces . . .196
Fossils of the Potsdam sandstone . . . . .196
Cambrian fossils of the Rocky Mountain region . . .198
CHAPTER VI Physical Events of the Ordovician in North America . 199
The Ordovician System in Canada . . . . .201
The sequence of Ordovician rocks in Ontario . . . 202
Economic products of Ordovician rocks .... 204
Life of the Ordovician ....... 204
Ordovician plants ........ 204
Ordovician invertebrates ....... 204
CHAPTER VII Physical Events of the Silurian in North America . 217
The Silurian System in Canada . . . . .218
The sequence of Silurian rocks in Ontario . . . .218
Economic products of Silurian rocks .... 220
Correlation of Silurian formations . . . . .222
Correlation table of the Silurian formations of Nova Scotia,
Ontario, and England ....... 222
Life of the Silurian
Xll
Chapter VIII
Physical Events of the Devonian in North America The Devonian System in Canada •
The sequence of Devonian rocks in Ontario Life of the Devonian Devonian plants
Devonian invertebrates ...••• Devonian vertebrates . •
PAGE
. 232
• , 233
• 235
. 238
• 239
• 239
• 245
Chapter IX
THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD Correlation Table of the Carboniferous and Permian of
Europe and North America -5°
Physical Events of the Carboniferous in North America . 251
The Carboniferous System in Canada .... 254
Subdivisions of the Carboniferous rocks in eastern Canada . 254
The coal fields of Nova Scotia . . • • • • 256
Carboniferous formations of the Southern Rockies . . 257
Life of the Carboniferous 258
Carboniferous plants . . • • • • ^5 8
Carboniferous invertebrates . . • • • .201
Carboniferous vertebrates . • • • • -265
CHAPTER X Physical Events of the Permian in North America . 269
The Permian in other Continents . 27°
The Permian System in Canada. . • • • .271
Life of the Permian 272
Chapter XI Summary Of The Palaeozoic Era
CONTENTS xm
Chapter XII The Mesozoic Era — The Triassic Period
General Features of the Mesozoic ....
The* Triassic Period .
• • • • •
Physical Events of the Triassic in North America The Triassic System in Canada
• • • •
Life of the Triassic .
Chapter XVI The Cenozoic Era— The Tertiary Period
PAGE
The Cenozoic Era .
The Tertiary Period ...•••
Classification of the Tertiary Period Physical Events of the Tertiary in North America The Tertiary System in Canada •
Life of the Tertiary .
Tertiary mammals .
Extinct groups of Tertiary mammals
The development of typical races of modern mammals
33°
33°
332 334
Chapter XVII The Quaternary Period— The Pleistocene Epoch
Older Classification of the Pleistocene . . . •
The Glacial Period
Extent of glaciation in North America Conditions during the glacial period •
Interglacial periods . • • • .* • . *
The withdrawal of the ice sheets and the formation of glacial
lakes .
The Marine Episode or Champlain Period Physiographic Effect of the Glacial Period .
The Pleistocene in other Regions .
The Life of the Pleistocene • •••••
Man’s appearance in geology ••••••
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
1. Ground Figures of the Six Systems of Crystals
2. Crystal of Quartz .......
3. Crystal of Ortiioclase Feldspar ....
4. Crystal of Pyroxene ......
5. Crystal of Hornblende ......
6. Granite, illustrating the “Granitic" or Even¬
grained Structure of Deep-seated Igneous Rocks
7. Jasper Conglomerate ......
8. Typical Gneiss, Kii.laloe, Hagerty Township, Ont. .
9. The Three Standing Columns of the Temple of
Jupiter Serapis, near Naples ....
10. Raised Beaches, Spitzbergen .....
11. Seismogram of San Francisco Earthquake, April 18, 1906
12. Crater of Mount Kilauea, Hawaii ....
14. Eruption of Ngauruhoe, New Zealand, in 1914 .
15. Craters and Cinder Cones, Mount Etna .
16. Honeycomb Weathering in Stratified Rocks, Lake
Timiskaming, Quebec ......
17. Talus formed by Action of Frost, Nipigon River, Ont.
18. Earth Pillars due to Rain Erosion of Boulder Clay,
Rocky Mountains .......
19. Underground Waters ......
20. Landslip, Frank, Alberta ......
21. Cave, New Zealand .......
22. Canyon of Abitibi River, Ontario ....
23. Meanders in Flood Plain, Don River, Toronto, Ontario
24. Delta of the Mackenzie River, Arctic Ocean, and of
the Kaministiquia River, Thunder Bay, Lake Superior ........
25. Emperor Falls, Mount Robson, B.C.
26. Mountain Torrent, Nakvak, Labrador
27. Waves, Newcastle, New South Wales
28. Wave Erosion, Cape Blomidon, Nova Scotia
29. A Hook. The “Island" at Toronto, Ontario
30. A Map of the World, showing the Principal Ocean
Currents ........
31. Tide at Wolfville on Bay of Fundy
32. Borax Lake and the Volcano Ollegue, Bolivia
xv
PAGE
1 1 1 1
41 47 52 54
71 73
86 87
XVI
FIG.
35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40.
41 • page
Ice Rampart, Lake Simcoe, Ontario .•••96 Glacier on Mount Balfour, Rocky Mountains, showing
N£v£ Fields, Ice Falls, and Medial Moraines . 97
Ice Cave and River at End of Yoho Glacier, B.C. . 98
Medial Moraine, Alaskan Boundary . . 99
Terminal Moraine, Main Glacier, Mount Robson, B.C. 99 Boulder Clay with Striated Stones, Toronto, Ont. . 100
Striated Stone from Boulder Clay at Toronto, Ont. . 100
Roche Moutonn£e and Striated Surface, Copper Cliff,
Cirque near Mount Tetragona, Labrador . - - 102
Sand Dune near Wellington, Ontario . - - 104
Bad Lands showing Wind Scour, Red Deer River,
Alberta
44. Tertiary Limestone with Shells •
45. Stratification of Lorraine Shale and Limestone,
Humber River, Toronto •
46. Cross Bedding in Sandstone, due to Waves and Cur¬
rents, Thousand Islands, Ontario
47. Tide Ripples, Souris, Prince Edward Island
48. Joints in Limestone, Napanee, Ontario
49. Concretions of Carbonate of Lime from Pleistocene
Clay, Toronto, Ontario •
50. Diagram showing Strike and Dip ....
51. Open Symmetrical Fold showing an Anticline or Up¬
ward Bend and a Syncline or Downward Bend.
52. Part of Folding Mountain, Athabasca Gap, Rocky
Mountains, showing a Complex Syncline
53. Overturned Fold, Clearwater River
55. Folding under Thrust Fault, Clearwater River
56. Normal Faults, showing a Horst and a Graben
57. Normal Fault near Nipigon, Ontario
58. Thrust Fault near Ghost River, Bow Pass
59. Modern Fault connected with an Alaskan Earthquake
60. Discordances • •••••••
61. Disconformity ..••••••
62. Unconformity, Utah ..-••••
63. Pa-hoe-hoe Lava, Kilauea, Hawaii ....
64. Aa Lava, Etna . . . . •
65. Pillow and Amygdaloidal Structure, Sudbury, Ont. .
66. Diabase Dikes, Saglek, Labrador .
67. Ideal Cross Section of a Laccolith with Sheets and
68. The Sudbury Basin, Ontario . . . . • hi
1 16
1 16
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
69. Plan and Cross Section of a Batholith
70. Basaltic Columns near Mount Garibaldi, B.C.
71. Sheeting and Jointing in Granite, Fox Island, B.C.
72. Outline Map of Canada showing in Black the Chief
Areas of Pre-Cambrian Rocks ....
73. Timiskaming Series, Porcupine, Ontario
74. Striated Stone from Cobalt Tillite .... 75- Tillite (Boulder Conglomerate) of Cobalt Series
resting on Keewatin Greenstone, Cobalt, Ont.
76. Pal^fogeographic Map of North America in Lower
Cambrian Time
••••••
77. Sketch Map of Eastern Canada showing the Chief
Areas of Cambrian Rocks .....
78. Lake Louise, Rocky Mountains ....
79. A Trilobite dissected to show Chief Points of the
Anatomy .......
80. Diagrams of the Heads of the Three Types of
Trilobites .......
81. Olenellus, the Typical Trilobite of the Lower
Cambrian .......
82. Structure of the Recent Brachiopod, Megallania
Flavescens ....
• • • •
83. Four Types of Brachiopods .....
84. Cambrian Fossils of British Columbia
85. Pal^eogeographic Map of North America in Upper
Ordovician Time .......
86. Sketch Map of Eastern Canada showing in Black the
Chief Areas of Ordovician Rocks
87. Ordovician Corals ......
88. Ordovician Graptolites ......
89. Ordovician Crinoids and Cystids ....
90. Ordovician Brachiopods .....
91. Structure of Long-celled or Tubular Bryozoans
92. Ordovician Ostracods and Bryozoans
93. Ordovician Gastropods .....
94. Ordovician Pelecypods .....
95. Ordovician Pelecypod .....
96. Nautilus Pompilius, a Recent Nautiloid, with the
Shell removed on One Side. ....
97. Ordovician Nautiloids .....
98. Actinoceras Crebriseptum from the Lorraine Rocks
at Toronto .......
99. Ordovician Trilobites ......
100. Ordovician Trilobites .....
101. The Niagara Cuesta ....
xvii
PAGE
FIG.
1 10.
1 12. 1 *3-
II4.
I l6.
1 19.
12.5.
Sketch Map of Eastern Canada showing in Black the Chief Areas of Silurian Rocks .
Sketch Map of Central Canada showing the Areas
COVERED BY PALAEOZOIC ROCKS .
Silurian Corals .....
Silurian Dendroid Graptolite Stromatoporoids of the Silurian.
Silurian Crinoids and Cystids .
Silurian Brachiopods ....
Silurian Gastropods ....
Silurian Pelecypods and Cephalopods Silurian Trilobites ....
Eurypterus Remipes ....
PaLaEOGeographic Map of North America in Middle and Upper Devonian Time Sketch Map of Eastern Canada showing the Chief Areas of Devonian Rocks Silurian and Devonian Plant Slab of Onondaga Limestone from Ontario showing the Profusion of Fossils Devonian Corals ....
Devonian Crinoids and Blastoids Devonian Brachiopods Devonian Pelecypods and Gastropods Devonian Cephalopods Devonian Trilobites ....
Typical Devonian Ostracoderm .
Jaws of the “Terrible Fish” .
Devonian Fish .....
Devonian Ostracoderm Kettle Point, Lake Huron Sketch Map of Eastern Canada showing the Extent of Carboniferous Rocks Rocky Mountains near Banff, Alberta Carboniferous Ferns and Cycas-ferns Carboniferous Tree-ferns .
Carboniferous Trees ....
The Typical Carboniferous Coral, Lithostrotion Canadense
Carboniferous Marine Invertebrates Carboniferous Arthropods .
Wing of Haplophlebium Barnesii Carboniferous Fish Carboniferous Amphibia The Glossopteris Flora page
234 ;
248 248
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix
FIG- PAGE
140. Permian Amphibian ....... 273
14 1. Permian Reptile ....... 274
142. Triassic Traps of Nova Scotia, Cape Blomidon . .281
143. Triassic Invertebrates ...... 284
144. Triassic Crustacean ....... 285
T45- Triassic Water Reptile ...... 286
146. Primitive Triassic Crocodile ..... 286
147. Triassic Vertebrates . . . . . . 287
148. Sketch Map of British Columbia .... 291
152. Jurassic Pei.ecypods ....... 296
153. Slab from the Jurassic of England .... 296
T54- Liassic and Jurassic Ammonites ..... 297
J55- Liassic and Jurassic Belemnites .... 298
156. Jurassic Decapod ....... 299
I57- Shining-scaled Ganoids of the Jurassic . . . 299
158. Mesozoic Flying Reptiles ...... 302
L59- Archaeopteryx Macrura, the First Bird (Jurassic) . 303
160. Sketch Map of North America in Cretaceous Time . 308
161. Sketch Map showing the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Rocks of the Great Plains . . . . .311
162. Cretaceous Crinoid ....... 315
163. Cretaceous Pelecypods ...... 316
164. Cretaceous Pelecypod . . . . . -317
165. Cretaceous Gastropods ...... 317
166. Cretaceous Echinids and Cephai.opods . . . 319
167. Upper Cretaceous Plesiosaur ..... 320
168. Cretaceous Mosasaur ....... 320
169. The Great Amphibious Dinosaur, Brontosaurus
170. The Great Amphibious Dinosaur, Diplodocus Carnegii 321
171. Cretaceous Carnivorous Dinosaur, Gorgosaurus
Libratus . 322
172. Cretaceous Carnivorous Dinosaur, Tyrannosaurus
Rex (Head) . 322
I73- Cretaceous Trachodont Dinosaurs .... 323
174. European Cretaceous Beaked Dinosaur . . . 324
175- Cretaceous Horned Dinosaurs ..... 324
176. Cretaceous Horned Dinosaurs ..... 325
177. Cretaceous Armoured Dinosaur. .... 326
178. Cretaceous Turtle ....... 328
179. Cretaceous Wading Bird ...... 329
180. Map showing the Natural Subdivisions of Southern
British Columbia .
XX
181. Canadian Tertiary Fish 33°
182. Primitive Basal Eocene Mammal • 34°
183. An Upper Eocene Pal.eothere . 342
184. The Evolution of the Horse . 343
185. The Evolution of the Horse . 344
186. The Evolution of the Elephant Family during the
188. Glacial Map of North America .,•••• 349
189. Interglacial Beds . . . • • • 35 1
190. Two Beds of Till with Stratified Sand between . 352
191. An Extinct Maple ...•••• 353
193. Sketch Map of Post-glacial Lakes .... 355
195. The Great Ground Sloth of the Pleistocene . . 359
196. Pleistocene Carnivore ...... 36°
197. Pleistocene Marsupial ...... 3^i
PART I
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
The opening of the book is shown; the full text loads in the reader.
Loading the full text…
The end
You’ve reached the end of Elementary geology : with special reference to Canada.