Education and social life

Foreword

The plan of this book will be found outlined on pages 7-9. The historical and practical questions which are there sketched arise whenever an endeavour is made to relate education to social life.

There are many people for whom social betterment has a powerful fascination. They respond to its claims with conspicuous enthusiasm. But if account be taken of the time and energy which social benefactors spend, and also of the net results of their labours, it must be frankly confessed that disappointment is often experienced by most of them. They attempt much, but little is accomplished.

Why is the rate of social progress so slow ? ix

Foreword

It is largely because those to whom social reformers appeal have neither been taught to recognise the claims which society has upon them, nor trained to render social service. It is vain to hope for the success of even good remedial measures if the great majority of the people do not receive social instruction at an early period in their lives. This is at once the justification and explanation for our insisting upon the necessity of giving social instruction in the day-schools.

The importance of such instruction cannot be emphasised too strongly. Social reformers must give this subject their earnest attention. They must begin with the pupils in the higher classes in the day-schools. For, if the questions which affect the health and prosperity of society be neglected or relegated to a subordinate place, then ill-considered social schemes will continue to hold the field ; or if.

Foreword

perchance, wise and necessary reforms be formulated, only haphazard support will be g'iven to them.

Education is a large subject, and covers a wide field. An accurate survey of its long history and a careful reading of that history must be made ; and, in addition, the manner in which it is carried on at present, and the aims which educationists have in view, must also be ascertained if education is to be justified, and its value appreciated as a powerful instrument of social betterment.

There have been times when education was regarded as exclusively for gentlemen and not at all for the masses ; times also when it received special attention in the interests of the Church, as an ecclesiastical institution ; and times, too, when it was held to be the handmaid of religion without respect to church

organisations. Education has likewise been

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Foreword

made to minister to commerce and to physical science. The time has come when it should be brought to bear on social life. This is the task which lies to the hands of educationists at the present time. Many useful ends may be served by the instruction which is given in the day-schools ; but these are in nowise inconsistent with the aim of social betterment, which is the chief end of education.

To elucidate the questions which lie around this subject, and to enforce its claims, the following pages have been written.

J. WILSON HARPER.

Contents

PAGES

CHAPTER I The Relation of Education to Social Life

I. The Interest which is taken in Education and in Social Life. The two Subjects often separated —

II. The Questions which they raise. The five Sciences of Human Life — III. The Meaning of Social Progress — IV. The Social Progress effected by Individualism and Altruism — V. The Factors of Social Betterment ; Material, Mental, and Moral Improvement — VI. The Relation of Education to Social Life .... 1-27

Chapter II

I. The Division under which the Aim is examined —

II. Educational Inheritance — III. Description of Aim — IV. Definitions of Education — V. Education should improve Manners and fit for Social Service . . . 28-48

CHAPTER III Historical Survey of Education

I. Education in Ancient Times— II. The Schoolmen —

III. The Renaissance— IV. Survey of Educational History 49-82

xiii

Contents

PAGES

CHAPTER IV The Teachings of Educational History

I. Advantages of Historical Studies — II. Subjects added slowly to the Time-table — III. The Province of Education widened — IV. Civic Standard introduced — V. Modern Educationists' True Ideal — VI. Prominence given to Ethics, Psychology, and Religion — \'II. History's Teachings respecting Method . . . 83-110

CHAPTER V The Claims of Psychology in Relation to Education

I. The Study of Psychology Essential to Effective Teaching — II. The Unity and Powers of the Mind — III. Mental Processes : what they are — IV. The Teacher's Task : the Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers — V. The Benefits of Psychological Observations 111-142

CHAPTER VI Education and Ethics

I. Ethics related to Psychology — II. Moral Theories — III. Moral Instruction necessary — W. \'irtues to be Cultivated — V. Educational Authorities and Moral Training 143-164

CHAPTER VII Education and Economics

I. The Claims of Economics — II. Educationists and Economics — III. Can Economics be neglected with Impunity? — IV. Economics can be made interesting to Scholars — V. The Practical Issues raised — VI. Objections to teaching Economics in the Public Schools

considered 165-192

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Contents

Chapter VIII

I. The Formation of Society — II. The Advantages of Political Instruction— III. The Need for such Instruction— IV. The Political Instruction which can be given — V. Political Instruction not yet given in the Public Schools : an interesting Series of Lessons possible — VI. Politics bears directly upon Human Life • . 193-216

CHAPTER IX i^'\. Religious Instruction demanded — II. The Grounds on which the Demand rests — III. The Reformation and Religious Instruction — IV. How the Problem of Religious Instruction is to be solved — V. A Possible Solution .......... 217-239

Chapter X

I. The Curriculum and Educational Agencies — II. The Curriculum Determined by Educational Aims — III. The Curriculum of Primary Schools — IV. Of Secondary Schools — V. The Test of Admission of Subjects — VI. The Subjects which should be Taught — VII. Extension of School Years necessary . . 240-263

Chapter XI

I. Agencies and the Content of Education not opposed to each other — II. Education Department and a National Council — III. School Boards — IV. Teachers — V. Inspectors — VI. Compulsory Attendance— VII. School Buildings 264-285

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Contents

PAGES

Chapter XII

I. Education a Means to an End — II. What is the Social Ideal? — III. Equality and Liberty — IV. The Social Ideal described — -V. The Public School the Place where it should be inculcated — V'l. The Perfection of Society . • «- . • - • . • . 286-308

XVI

Chapter I The Relation Of Education To Social Life

I

It would be difficult to name two subjects which more legitimately claim public attention at the present time than those of education and social progress, first as separate subjects, and next as intimately related the one to the other.

The wide-spread and keen interest which is taken in education can be easily explained. Parents recognise that if their children are well educated their opportunities in life will be greatly multiplied. Men of business soon learn that commerce is rapidly extended if they themselves, and those whom they employ, have trained minds and hands. Commercial prosperity, it is clearly perceived, owes much to education. Those countries which develop technical training have a great advantage on their side. The progress of mental and moral

I I science is equally dependent upon education ; for, where it is thorough, investigations can be successfully carried on, and great advances can be made.

These and other factors create a wide-spread interest in education, and accordingly very special attention is given to it at the present time. Parliament formulates educational schemes, and makes large grants of money on behalf of education. Experts subject the Government's schemes to a searching examination, while " the man in the street " finds in education a topic which he can discuss with interest.

But if education thus commands public attention, the practical problems of modern social life successfully compete with it, and also claim special recognition. Thousands of men and women are utterly dissatisfied with the harsh and noisome conditions under which the great masses of the people pass their burdened, weary lives. There never was a time, perhaps, when more persons turned their earnest attention to social problems than at the present moment.

The concrete needs of the poor not only excite sympathy and pity, but also call into existence innumerable societies which aim at orivinor relief. Doles of charity are now, however, seen to be quite insufficient to root out social evils. Year after year, therefore, witnesses the multiplied endeavours which are made to discover a properly scientific method of dealing with social distress. The science of economics, long neglected and counted as dry as dust, is now receiving a prominence which perhaps surprises its exponents most of all ; but the awakened interest is explained when the urgency of social evils and the failure of misguided benevolence are kept in view. Socialism, too, counts an ever-increasing number of adherents. One may or may not approve of its drastic proposals ; but whatever the attitude adopted towards it may be, the growth of socialism is an outstanding evidence of the absorbing interest which is taken in the problems of social life.

All these testify to the attention which is given to social progress. And it may be added that, if any person lives and thinks, and does not also recognise the presence and gravity of the social problems of the day, he must lead a singularly narrow and selfish life.

There are, then, the amplest grounds for saying that education and social progress are subjects which engross public attention. It would contain a promise of better days speedily coming, if it could be said with equal certainty that the question of the bearing of education on social life engages the public mind. This, however, cannot be affirmed. Unfortunately, a sufficiently wide scope is seldom ^iven to educational efforts. These efforts, it is true, when compared with those of previous times, are enormously enlarged ; but they are not widened to the extent which the grave social evils of the day demand. And, what is still more serious, education, such as it is, is not related to social life as it should be related. In America, as the Moseley Commission shows, strenuous endeavours have been made to make education tell upon social life, and not without hopeful results ; but with us the question has scarcely received even the slightest attention.

To say so much as this may create surprise, and perhaps also excite comment ; for we do not like to have our defects pointed out. We prefer to believe that we have attained to a fairly satisfactory position. But what are the facts ? The two subjects are pursued apart, and their respective advocates go their own ways, little reckoning how much the one is dependent upon the other ; or how close, indeed, is the relation between them ; or how much the one can give motive and inspiration to the other.

It would be easy to adduce proof in support of these statements, and also to supply evidence of the harm done by the unnatural separation of two subjects which are, in the very nature of things, intimately related the one to the other. Thus, the sole interest which many take in education is that of successful examination passes. This is their one and supreme standard of educational attainments. U nder the influence of this limited and defective aim, scholars' minds are crammed with unassimilated information, and within a short time their mental energy is exhausted. Hence in future hfe few of those who are distinguished for having passed the examiner's tests, which are often of the most mechanical description, ever do, or even attempt, mental or social work. These scholars are all blossom ; they promise much, but somehow they seldom bear fruit. Their lives spell disappointment. We are far from saying that written or oral examinations are valueless ; they have their own place, but they are not final. Many educationists, however, are entirely satisfied with high passes. That is their idea of education. It is unrelated to social life and its urgent duties. It has no bearing upon social betterment ; and fitness to render social service is not regarded as a scholar's necessary goal.

On the other side, social reformers in many instances scout the schools. With ill-informed minds, they often attempt a reconstruction of society. They do not perceive that salutary changes on the social structure must be effected step by step, and slowly. They are impatient. The hardships of their fellows powerfully appeal to them ; and all too readily they assent to the crudest schemes which earnest but ill-informed reformers propound. Some justification may perhaps be found for their hasty action in this, that they see life from one point of view alone. They have not been educated to take a wide survey of life and its obligations. Their education, like that of so many others, has been limited to a brief period. It has also been one-sided and defective. The schools and professional men lend them little assistance ; and they are, therefore, not altogether to be blamed if they hastily conclude that anything which has even the semblance of a remedy for the social evils of the day is better than indifference to the sufferings of their companions.

Education and social progress thus appeal to two separate classes. Each looks too exclusively at one problem, and tries to solve it ; but neither makes an endeavour to relate the one problem to the other. We do not say that there are not educationists to whom the relation is quite manifest ; but only that educationists, as a class, have not made a deliberate effort to join hands with social reformers, and that many of those who have a perfect passion for social reforms attach little or no value to the help which educationists might render. The one stands in direct antagonism to the other. The most disastrous results therefore follow. Pedagogism, contrary to all that the word originally signified, has no direct bearing upon legitimate social improvement. Its aim is not to lead boys and girls into a larger social life, and fit them for its duties, but to cram their minds with formulae and facts. Social reformers see in this nothing to aid them, and they often, therefore, turn away, repelled from education and educationists.

Notwithstanding this unfortunate antagonism, it needs to be said that education and social life are intimately related to and dependent upon each other. It should, indeed, be emphasised in the strongest possible manner that education is essential to social progress ; for, ol all the factors which directly contribute to social betterment, education is one of the most powerful. If sufficiently broad and well directed, its influence is healthy and effective. Social well-being is not the outcome of chance. Social energy, if it is to issue in permanent social improvement, needs to be guided by intelligence. The trained mind, which is also inspired by high moral purpose, makes, therefore, the most valuable contribution to the betterment of social life.

II

But when an earnest and thorough endeavour is made to ascertain the functions which education discharges in relation to social improvement, urgent questions at once arise and demand an answer. Thus, on the threshold the question is encountered. What is the rightful and true aim of education ? Much depends upon the kind of answer which is given to this inquiry ; for, unless education itself be properly defined, or at least adequately described, all subsequent investigations are invalidated. But education has a fairly well-marked history, and therefore, in any adequate attempt to ascertain its functions, it is essential that an answer should be returned, in the second place, to the important question. What light does the history of education throw upon educational theory, agencies, and aims ? The adoption of the historical method is necessary if satisfactory results are to be obtained. The labours of eminent educationists cannot be neglected. It is only, indeed, after one has ascertained what they aimed at and accomplished that their defects are seen, and improvements in educational agencies and ends can be suggested. History is a valuable instructor ; and when its clear light is thrown upon the endeavours of earlier and later educationists, the way is prepared, in the third place, for examining the claims which the great sciences of human life rightly make for a prominent place in a scheme of education. The sciences of human life are five in number. The science of psychology comes first, both because it is first in the order of nature, and because it lies at the root of all the others. Education, and also social life, alike require a right understanding of mental states. The science of ethics follows next in order. Moral principles imply, and indeed are based on, psychological postulates. The science of economics comes after that of ethics. It is true that it deals chiefly with tvealth ; but since it is bound to inquire how wealth is used as well as to ask how it is acquired,^ this science, as its latest and best exponents fully recognise, must take account of moral principles. The science of politics, again, is based on economics ; for political art is the translation into practice of economic theory. You cannot have wise legislators if they are ignorant of economic history and economic principles. The science of reliofion also claims attention at the hands of educationists ; for, man is a religious being, and to leave religion out of account is to deny what is most vital in man's life. But true education concerns itself with all that belongs to human life, and therefore religion must have its own place in a comprehensive and right educational scheme.

When the claims of these five sciences have been considered, it naturally follows that educational agencies should next receive attention ; for, how to overtake all that lies within the educational province and give effect to aims and theories are questions of great practical importance ; but the discussion of these and all other subjects which bear directly or indirectly upon education and social life must be subordinated to that of the social ideal. For the final purpose of human life determines alike the subjects which ought to be taught, and the agencies which ought to be employed.

It is a capital advantage thus clearly to ascertain the lines along which investigations should be conducted ; and since the relation in which education stands to social improvement is a subject of very great practical worth, it deserves an orderly as well as a comprehensive treatment.

Ill

But when we speak of social progress, a clear idea ought to be entertained as to what is meant. Progress, to be thorough, must include the entire field of human activities. It does not mean merely material prosperity. Abundance of wealth may make for a better social life ; for condition always more or less affects character. But social progress is much more than the multiplication of goods. The material and mental, the moral and economic, the political and religious are all included in true progress.

The greatest possible injury is done to society when progress in one direction only is aimed at, or when education is conducted along one line alone, as when, say, material prosperity is made its goal. Human life is stamped with a profound unity, but it is a unity within which there is room for the greatest diversity. Hence on its one side human life is most simple, and on its other most complex ; but from whatever side it may be viewed, all that bears on human life must receive attention at the hands of those who aim at social progress.

Advance alono- one line alone issues in a development which is one-sided and defective. When, for instance, material possessions are eagerly sought, the endeavour to attain them may indicate one stage of social progress, and their actual attainment may yield a certain amount of satisfaction. But man cannot realise himself by means of material things alone, or by the gratification of mere personal desires. In vain has materialism sought to satisfy the deep social instincts and the lofty moral aspirations of man. However plausible the arguments by which it has been supported, or however specious th^ reasoning by which it has been advocated, man, just because he is a moral and social being, whose life is moulded by moral truths and conditioned by economic principles, cries out for satisfaction, and cannot be appeased by material things alone.

This demand which man makes is altogether legitimate and eminently reasonable. | In trying, ^therefore, to ascertain the aim of education, prominence should be given to man's rightful claims. The question thus raised is so important that no apology needs to be offered if for a moment the searching light of history be thrown upon it. There have been long periods of time during which men have striven to obtain material possessions, and to gain the ascendancy over their fellows. The passion for ascendancy dominated everything. Sometimes it assumed a gross, and sometimes a more refined form. The long-drawn-out conflicts and ruthless wars of ancient times can only be explained by this passion for

II dominance. The more refined forms of pleasure which ancient philosophy cultivated were frankly and openly related to selfgratification ; and material possessions were eagerly sought because they ministered to pleasure.

In mediaeval times the same phenomena presented themselves, but with the additional characteristic, that then even religfion itself was materialised. The spirit of religion was lost in elaborate formal ceremonies, and ceased to be a moral power. Hence the stagnant state into which Europe lapsed. Chivaln,- and mysticism are generally associated with the Middle Ages. Their Eden, says Mr G. K. Chesterton, " was really a garden where each of God's flowers, truth, beauty, and reason, flourished for its own sake " ; ^ but history scarcelv justifies one in maintaining that these qualities obtained among the great masses of the people, or even among the ruling classes. The testimony of history goes rather to show that mediaevalism stands for superstition, and intellectual and moral indifference. For, were it otherwise, the Renaissance would be unintelligible, and the Reformation without justification.

Few, however, who read history- correctly question the reality of the might)' movement which the term Renaissatue indicates. Difference of opinion may obtain as to its

^ Life of BriKcning, p. 25. 12 exact beginning, or the period over which it spread, but there can be no doubt respecting the movement itself. The Renaissance was a many-sided evolution. It was a loud protest against the prevailing ideas of the time, that man could be satisfied with the material ; but it was also an intellectual, moral, and economic new birth. With g-reat enthusiasm Humanists gave themselves to the study of ancient classical literature. They explored the vast treasures which Greek and Roman works contained. They drank deeply at the fountain of knowledge. Many of them pondered long and earnestly over the great moral truths which the master-minds of Greece had embodied in the most beautiful lancruacre, and were powerfully affected by them. Though the new awakening was at first mainly intellectual, and issued, in some instances, in scepticism, yet within a short period it was characterised by an intense moral activity. The intellectual, like the material, failed to give satisfaction. The intellectual faculty having been awakened, the moral also felt the influence of the new spirit then ever)-- where asserting itself. It was soon, therefore, widely recognised that, if man was to realise his high destiny, all that pertains to his life must receive earnest attention. If, indeed, one rightly reads the signs of those times, the Reformation itself is seen to be, not a sudden movement, but the natural product of the evolution then slowly proceeding from stage to stage.

The same causes, too, explain the great economic changes which were at that period beginning to manifest themselves. For, at that time the economic conditions were the most wretched. Feudal lords ruled with an iron hand, and the serfs had no voice either in Church or State. With the intellectual and moral telling directly upon large sections of the people, it is not to be supposed that their economic conditions could remain unaffected. The economic movement, however, was scarcely perceptible at its beginning. It reached maturity also much more slowly than the intellectual and moral ; but the new spirit which had been awakened loosened the serfs fetters, and made serfdom within a comparatively short time an impossibility.

Commerce then also began the long series of conquests which extend to the present day. The opportune invention of printing was serviceable to men of business as well as to men of letters. New fields for commercial enterprise were eagerly sought ; and progress, as great as the then economic conditions allowed, was made. Improvements were effected slowly but surely on the social structure ; and in all departments of life the silent but mighty influence of the Renaissance was felt.

'4

IV

Since the Renaissance, with its far-reaching intellectual, moral, and economic changes, there is nothing more remarkable than the ever-increasing endeavours which have been made to improve the conditions of social life. During the greater part of the period which these endeavours cover, the reign of individualism in philosophy, in commerce, and even in religion was almost supreme. Philosophy encouraged the pursuit of desirable objects along the line of least resistance. Each man for himself, and personal advantage, indicated the rule which business men observed ; and the salvation of the individual soul, without regard either to the extension of the Kingdom of God or the good of the race, was the burden of the preacher's message. With these ideas prevailing, the Church had no foreign missions ; and the efforts of William Carey to awaken her members to a sense of their duty towards the heathen were counted Utopian by many good people. The root explanation of this strange phenomenon and inexcusable neglect is found in the exclusive reign of individualism.

That during the severe reign of individualism many benefits were gained, cannot be denied by anyone who is acquainted with the history of philosophy, commerce, and religion. But the highest social improvement could not be thus secured ; nor under this reign could adequate justice be done to the potentialities of human Hfe. A spirit other than that of individualism had to assert its influence over social affairs. This spirit was found in brotherhood. That interest in, and endeavours to secure, the well-being of man without respect to colour or race have been widely shown and strenuouslymade, is beyond question. This interest and these endeavours have in recent times expressed themselves in many brotherly acts, but notably in many forms of collectivism. Earnest-minded men have clearly perceived that social well-being can only be secured by combinations, and by each man trying to find his own good in that of his neighbour. There are, it is true, those who take grave objection to altruism, and to the efforts which it prompts towards social improvement. Not thus, they argue, can the highest social state be realised ; but whether the philosopher approves of altruism or not, whether the commercial man obeys or rejects its imperatives, the new brotherly spirit is welcomed by thousands of bread-earners, and poets like Tennyson sing its praise, and tell of the time when in the roll of the ages

" Each shall find his own in all men's good, And all men work in noble brotherhood."

The numerous societies and combinations which working- men have formed witness to its influence, and show that it has been cordially welcomed. That there is need, notwithstanding

i6 all that has been accomplished, for a mighty power which shall expel selfishness and self-seeking, is demonstrated by the social evils of the day. These raise the gravest questions to which attention can be turned. For, what is the condition of social life at the present time ? The depopulation of country districts goes on apace. Thousands of people crowd into the large cities, where there is little accommodation for them. Slums multiply rapidly and alarmingly. The state of the submerged tenth is most wretched. Their ignorance is appalling. Incentives to moral improvement are entirely denied to them, while powerful temptations to wrong-doing drag many down to the deepest degradation. This is one side of the picture ; the other affords little ground for self-congratulation. Wealth has enormously increased, but it is unequally distributed. The rich can command luxuries, but the temptation to selfish gratification is too strong for the majority of them. Those who are in positions of power make the most meagre and inadequate attempts to lift society to a higher level ; and the complacence with which even Christian men who command stores of wealth regard the present state of things cannot be too much regretted.

V

Whoever looks at these conditions of social life sees at once what the social problem is, and

17 2 how urgent is the need for its solution ; but if we go a step further, and inquire, How is it to be solved ? we need first to recall the factors which have already been employed towards the betterment of society ; secondly, to set out plainly the elements which play an important part in social life ; and thirdly, to ascertain in what way either new social agencies or those already employed can be made most effective.

I. We have already indicated in a few sentences the factors which made for social progress during, and immediately after, the Revival of Learninor. Those who came under the influence • the new awakening aimed at social improvement, but it was social improvement in the most modified form ; for, it was almost entirely limited to the classes of the day, and scarcely at all touched the masses. How to train and educate gentlemen was the one question that was asked. The more important question, how to educate men and women without respect to their position in society, received little attention.