The development of Africa

Front matter

OF

'/ilorX^it pos-^

THE

Chapter I. A Bird's-eye View

PAGE

Preliminary survey of the continent — Its geological and physical structure — Oceanic and inland drainage-basins — Coincidence of political settlement with Oceanic drainage-areas . . . i

CHAPTER 11.

MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS.

Geographical distribution of the chief mountain-systems, and consequent development of the great river-systems, in relation to accessibility from the sea and internal communications . . 17

Chapter III. Climate And Cognate Phenomena

Distribution of temperature — Actual temperatures — Distribution of atmospheric pressure, and prevailing winds — Annual rainfall— Distribution of soils — Zones of vegetation — Distribution of animals — Classification of climates — Acclimatisation . . 51

Chapter IV. The Indigenous Populations

General considerations — Linguistic groups and their geographical distribution — Characteristics of Negroes and of native life — Survey of the indigenous populations : their mental, moral, and material culture ; their political organisations and social development — Capacity of the Negro for developing higher

CONTENTS.

PAGE forms of culture — Non-resistance, from the comparative absence of political cohesion in Bantu Africa, against the European domination — Native rights and European responsibilities . . 85

Chapter V. Islam And Christianity

Historical sketch of the progress of Islam and the extension of Arab influence — The border-land of Islam in the south — Signs of the times— Historical sketch of the progress of Christian missions — Results of missionary enterprise — Methods of INIohammedan propagandism and Arab rule, as compared with those adopted by Christian missions and European rule : in their effect upon the Pagan populations— Conclusions 129

CHAPTER yi.

THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES.

The sources, conditions, and extent of the Slave Trade — Discussion

of remedial measures 161

Chapter VII. Progress Of Exploration

Historical sketch of the progress of discovery and of exploratory work in Africa — Limits to our present knowledge — The task of the future, its probable direction, and the spirit in which it should be undertaken 183

Chapter VIII. Commercial Resources

Progress of exploitation — Commerce, the most important initial factor in African jiolitics — Commercial supremacy rather than empire tlie uixlorlying motive of Euroj)ean enterprise — The r(;i;.'n of comiiK.Tce — Tiie value of African laiuls — (Jeographical distribution of products, and the Tnovements of commerce — (leograpliical distril)utioii of ivory — Coincidence of slave-routes witli tradc-rontcH, ivory being tlie i)riiicipal article of exi>ort — The liquor-trallic — The Labour Problem — Colonisation — Chartered companies — "Robber-economy" — Honesty the best policy 217

CONTENTS. xi

Chapter IX. The European Domination

PAGE

Relative absence of native political rule — Survey of the European colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence — The political situation — Comparative absence of effective occupation by the European Powers — Obstacles to European political settlement not necessarily insuperable, but limitations to be observed . 249

Chapter X. Political Partition

Cause and effect — Methods — Definitions — The Berlin Conference of 18S4-85 — Territorial boundaries in Africa before the Confer ence, and those settled at or immediately after the Conference — Progress of the partition of Africa — Dij)lomatic negotiations, treaties, conventions, &c. — Fixed boundaries — Undefined territorial limits 279

CHAPTER XL

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

General principles underlying the develoi)ment of Africa along natural lines, derived from an examination of the various aspects under which the continent is known to Europe at the present day

NOTES ON THE MAPS, BY E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S. 323 INDEX 333

LIST OF MAPS

BY

Height of Land (Contoured Map) Plate I.

River-Basins and Ocean Currents .... „ II.

Mean Annual Temperatures „ III.

Mean Annual Range of Temperature ... „ IV.

Annual Rainfall „ V.

Geological Sketch „ VI.

Zones of Vegetation „ VII,

Commercial Products „ VIII.

Density of Population „ IX.

Languages „ X.

Religions, and Missionary Stations . . . . „ XI.

Progress of Exploration „ XII.

Political Partition „ XIII.

Forms of Government „ XIV.

Chapter I. A Bird's-eye View

PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE CONTINENT — ITS GEOLOGICAL AND

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OCEANIC AND INLAND DRAINAGE-BASINS

COINCIDENCE OF POLITICAL SETTLEMENT WITH OCEANIC DRAIN- AGE-AREAS.

MAPS.

Contoured Map Plate I.

E-ivkb-Basins, &c ,, II.

Geological Sketch „ YI.

A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.

AFEICA is the Pariah of Continents. Nature, whilst The Pariah Continent, lavishing on her the most bounteous gifts, has, at the

same time, imposed certain barriers and restrictions to their

enjoyment which hamper no other continent. Although

Egypt and the Mediterranean Littoral saw the dawn of the

earliest civilisation, circumstances, chiefly of a geographical

character, ha^'e been against the development of Africa.

Hence it has happened that, at the present day, we have

Ijeen called upon to re-discover the continent and to exploit

its natural resources.

We are told that Africa is a continental area of ini- its geoiogimense antiquity, a large portion of it being Ixiilt up of quity. rocks belonging to Archaean, Palteozoic, and early Mesozoic times. These, it is true, are geological terms that may fail to convince the lay reader. Should, however, any further proof of the extreme antiquity of the continent be required, it is afforded by the singular uniformity and simplicity of its coast-line. Therein lies a phenomenon that at once arrests attention.

Geologists regard as the continental plateau, not only the Continental

plateau.

great mass of the dry land, l)ut also its extension under the sea to a depth of one thousand fathoms. Now, this so-called continental plateau very closely corresponds in its direction with the present trend of the coast-lme on the east, the south, the w^est, and the noi'th-west. The dry land of Africa, in l)rief, occupies almost the entire area of the continental plateau. The coast-line shows a general absence of large

Absence of estuaries, deep bays, narrow gulfs, firths and fiords, all of

gulfs, &c.

which are such characteristic features of the much younger coast-line of North-Western Europe. We miss also the graceful peninsular forms wliich differentiate the continent of Eurasia. Hence it is that, though Africa is three times greater in area than Europe, its coast-line measures only about 17,700 miles, whilst that of Europe is over 2000 miles longer.

This remarkable absence of bays and gulfs in Africa, or of any large indentations in its coast-line, is explained by the washings of the continent — the immense amount of detritus brought down by the rivers^having, in the course of ages, gradually filled them up. The Gulf of Guinea, so called, is not a true gulf ; while the Gulf of Aden and the Eed Sea, with which it communicates, belong as much to Asia as to Africa : they simply separate the two continents, and constitute Africa an immense island — for the Suez Canal, y2> miles in length, gives it an ipso facto existence as such. Only in the Mediterranean, in the ancient Syrtes, do we recognise something like a true gulf. To the south of this small gulf, and, indeed, at many localities along the shores of the Mediterranean and the Eed Sea, are actual depressions below the sea-level, which, at some remote period, must have been the heads of gulfs and straits that have gradually disappeared as the land was elevated : raised beaches, far inland, now mark spots upon which the sea once broke in waves.

Geoiofficai Of gcological systcms in Africa very little need be said.

sv stems*

All the greater divisions are I'cpresented ; but it is to be noted that Archaan, I'aheozoic, and ]\Iesozoic strata occupy the major portion of the surface. Eocks of later Mesozoic age extend o\er large tracts in the northern portion of the continent, while Tertiary deposits are similarly developed across wide regions which di'ain towards the Mediterranean.

The West Coast — in contradistinction to the North and East Geological Coasts — has shown a remarkable persistency throughout an immense lapse of time, for it seems to have been outlined as far back as in the Palaeozoic era ; and the general distribution of rocks of this age and of the older Arch£ean scliists throughout the continent would appear to indicate that in Palaeozoic times the major portion of what is now land was then under water. Numerous small islands composed of Archaean rocks must in those times have dotted this sea, not only on the West Coast, but also along the main continental axis and elsewhere. In Mesozoic times, the land in the west and in the south and east had considerably increased in extent ; but vast areas in the Interior would appear to have been occupied by shallow seas. Within those areas we now find : in Northern Africa, Jurassic and Cretaceous, and in Southern and Central Africa, Triassic strata. The major portion of the continent would thus appear to have been dry land after Mesozoic times. In late Mesozoic times considerable volcanic outpourings took place in Eastern Africa; and it is probable that these volcanic eruptions were connected with the movement that resulted in the intensification of the main continental axis — that large backbone of elevated land which traverses the continent in a N.E — S.W. direction — and in the accompanying deformations of the earth's crust along the tract within which we now find the great lakes. The only deposits of Quaternary and later age we need refer to here are the enormous alluvial accumulations met wdth along the courses of the principal rivers and their tributaries, and the drifting sands which overspread such wide regions in the desiccated areas of Northern Africa.

In its general configuration, Africa conforms to the conti- Conformity

to continental type. Its hio-hest elevations are found, in accordance nentai

'/ ir Q type.

with the general law, on that side which faces the deepest zone sea : next the Indian Ocean. Its land sculpture is due principally to the action of denudation, guided and controlled l»y the geological character and structure of the rocks, charac- We havc, then, these characteristic physical features to

teristic

physical start witli : that the dry land of Africa occupies the greater

features. "^ .

portion of the continental plateau, and that the shore-line is almost without any great indentations. This absence of spacious bays and protected roadsteads has, it is evident, played an important part in the political development of Africa. The plateau character of the continent has, in like manner, been the means of excluding European enterprise from the interior lands, and has constituted Africa the outcast she now is.

Coastal From the abysmal depths of the surrounding seas the

continent rises by terrace upon terrace. A narrow coastal zone, from lOO to 300 miles in width, and not exceeding, say, 600 feet in elevation, girdles the greater part of the continent. Here the seafaring nations of Europe have timorously planted their colonies, for the expansion of which a coast-line as a base is so absolutely essential. This coastal zone penetrates most deeply into the Mediterranean lands, to the east of the Ali^erian highlands, mto the Western Sahara, and along the valleys of the Lower Niger and of otlier large rivers.

Inland The great inland plateau rises abruptly from the coastal

belt, for the most part step-like, in a succession of terraces, its hii'-liest elevations being attained in the north-east. As this vast inland plateau, varying between 600 and 3000 feet in elevation a])ove the sea-level, composes the greater part of Africa, and includes very many subsidiary plateaus, it niiiy pci'baps Ix-, conxcnicnt- tn (list ingiiisli it IV(»iu its compniicnt, paits by apjdying to it tbc Icnn I ba\(^ already used in its strict geological sense — that of the continental plateau.

plateau.

It is, however, to be observed that the more we learn of Northern Africa, particularly of the Saharan regions, the less we observe the permanence of the })lateau type, though in the southern half of Africa it is well defined.

The main axis of this continental plateau, as we shall Continental

axis.

henceforth call it, extends like a backl)one in a S.W. — N.E. direction from the South-West Coast to the shores of the Eed Sea, near which we find its most important nucleus, the volcanic mountain region of Abyssinia. From this main axis three subsidiary axes* strike transversely, like ribs, in a north-westerly direction : one follows the shores of the Eed Sea, separating them from the l)asin of the Nile ; another runs parallel to the West Coast, more or less continuously ; and the third takes a middle direction, dividing the catchment-basins of the Nile and Congo, and stretching a mighty arm, as it were, across the Sahara to within a comparatively short distance of the Mediterranean.

The mean altitude of Africa, taken roughly at 2000 feet, Elevation

of land

conforms very nearly to the mean elevation of the land of masses, the globe. Africa may, therefore, be regarded as a plateau of moderate elevation. Its mean altitude, however, is very greatly exceeded by that of Asia. As far as is known, its highest summits are reached in Kenia, which lies on the Equator, and in Kilima-njaro, a little to the south. The latter is estimated to be 19,680 feet above the sea-level, whilst the former cannot be much under. Mr. Stanley has quite recently (1889) discovered in the Euwenzori group, situated in the source-region of the Nile, snow-clad peaks which cannot be much under 19,000 feet in elevation. High mountains occur also in South Africa, in Abyssinia, on the Guinea coast, in Morocco, and in the Sahara, the enumeration of which is here unnecessary, because later on we shall

* The contours selected for the map illustrating this chapter may not, however, distinctly bring out these transverse subsidiary axes of the continent.

encounter them again. At present we are concerned only with distributions and generalisations.

General Froiu tliis distribution of the great mountain-systems of

structure. Africa, it will be seen that they do not exactly follow the law that holds good in regard to other continents : that the main continental axis coincides with its greatest length ; although, if we regard the subsidiary axes above referred to, we see in them only a variation of this physical law. There is another general law, which, on the other hand, is well exemplified in Africa : that the chief island masses occur to the south and east of continents. Thus, we find Madagascar — which at one time, however remote, formed part of the mainland — situated, in accordance with this law% to the south and east. Madagascar itself, built up in terraces just like the parent mass, is, it is true, the only African island of any size. In the Gulf of Guinea there are a few small volcanic islands, stretching in a south-westerly direction from Mount Camarons ; and small groups of volcanic islands appear off the North-West Coast; but they are comparatively insignificant.

Vast size of It is difficult to realise the immense size of Africa. Its simplicity of form imposes upon the mind of the casual observer. Many people, in fact, regard it as a country, and not as a large continent. Yet, if we seek its continental centre, or that point in the Interior which is most remote from all tlie surrounding coasts, we find that, in order to reach it, we slujuld require to travel a distance of over 1 100 miles. Only in Asia, whose continental centre is as remote as 1600 miles, should we require to travel a greater distance; but then Asia is duc-tliii-d larger than Africa.

Emboss- The exterior margins of the broad plateaus of Africa will

generally be found, as in those of other continents, to be hi<^dier than tlieir central portions, thus presenting toward the sea a sort of natural nuupart. This peculiar embossment.

ment of the continent, whilst determining its river-systems, has formed one of the most liostile impediments in regard to the accessibility of the interior lands. The rivers and Cataracts, lakes are, of course, the true natural highways ; ])ut all the large rivers, not only in their upper, but also in their middle and lower courses, where they break through the margins of the plateaus, have, in consequence, their beds filled with all sorts of rocky obstructions ; and so great is their inclination that the accelerated waters become rapids, or break into cataracts, or fall down sheer heights, in their eager passage to the sea. And unfortunately, from the fact of the inland or continental plateau approaching so near to the coasts, all the great rivers have their navigation obstructed at relatively short distances from their mouths. Serious obstacles are thus placed in the way of free commercial intercourse between Inner Africa and the outside world.

In order better to realise the physical relief of Africa, Drainagelet US endeavour to picture the disposition of its oceanic and mland drainage-basins,* thus illustratmg in the most forcible manner possible the chief slopes of the continent towards the surrounding seas, or into those enclosed basins whose drainage- waters never reach the Ocean at all. Of these catchment-basins, by far the most important is that draining into the Atlantic Ocean. In this respect Africa agrees with Europe and the Americas : about half of the land of the globe drains into the Atlantic.

The following are the drainage- areas of Africa : —

1. Atlantic Ocean.

2. Mediterranean Sea.

3. Indian Ocean.

(a.) Madagascar.

* By drainage-basins I refer to surface drainage only, — more correctly speaking, catchment-basins.

DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.

Oceanic

drainage

basins.

Enclosed basins.

4. Three Inland drainage-areas : — (a.) Sahara Desert. (Jb.) Kalahari Desert. (c.) Eastern Abyssinia.

By consulting the map, it will be seen at a glance how greatly the Atlantic Ocean drainage-area is in excess of the other drainage-areas of the African continent. It includes, of course, the mighty river-systems of the Niger and Congo, besides all the river-basins of the West Coast. The Congo alone discharges as great a volume of water as probably all the rivers of Africa taken together, the Niger m this respect coming next, and the dissipated Nile taking only a fourth place. The Nile, originating below the Equator, is the only river of importance in the Mediterranean dramage-basin, its magnificent system extending like a tongue far into the interior of Africa. The Indian Ocean drainage-basin includes, besides Madagascar, all the rivers of the East Coast, of which the Zambezi and Limpopo are the chief, from the Cape up to the Eastern Horn.

Of the enclosed basins, or those basins having a self-contained hydrographical system, by far the most extensive is that of the Sahara, which in the south impinges on the Sudan. Lake Tsad lies in a trough, l)ut not l)y any means, as was at one tune supposed, in the lowest part of the Saharan plateau. Besides the small enclosed basin between the Abyssinian highlands and the sea, in which there are restricted areas of absolute depression, tliere is a third, surrounding the Kalahari desert and holding Lake N'ganii. These are all more or less desert or riverless regions, in which the. annual rainfall is under five or ten inches ; and the explanation of their origin, tliough ])artly due to the configuration of the land, will be given when we come to consider the meteorological conditions of Africa.

If we compare the chief rivers of Africa with the great

A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. n

rivers of the world, the Congo will be found to rank second River-

_ . systems.

only to the Amazons in those respects which constitute an important river, namely, in point of drainage-area and annual discharge of water. The fact of their mouths being situated on or near the Equator, and their catchment-basins receiving in consequence an excessive rainfall, sufficiently ^

accounts for their abnormal volumes of discharge. But in regard to mere length, the Congo is exceeded by ^ of _ the great rivers of the world. Of these, the Mississippi- Missouri heads the list with a course of 4192 miles, and the Nile comes next with 4018 miles (though some day it may establish even a closer contest). In its lengthy course through desert lands the Nile, however, loses more w^ater by evaporation than any other liver of the same or of much lesser importance : hence the comparatively small volume of its discharge.

The discharge of a river may, rouglily speaking, be said Discharge

. ^ o ... . of rivers.

to equal the excess of rainfall over evaporation in its basin. The usual discharge of Tropical or sulj-Tropical rivers is calculated by Dr. John Murray to l)e about one-fifth of the rainfall on the river's basin ; but the Nile discharges only about one-thirty-seventh. European rivers discharge ])etween one-third and one-fourth of the rainfall on their catchment-basins.

The lakes of Africa, which play so important a part in Lakes, the accessibility of the continent, conform to the general law as regards the salinity or freshness of their waters ; that is to say, those not provided with outlets have, for the most part, salt or brackish water, unless submarine outlets carry off the salts held in solution. Lakes thus fall under two comprehensive divisions.

All the great lakes of Africa, except Tsad, are situated along the continental axis, in areas of relative depression, or along the line of great faults or fractures in the earth's crust.

Lakes. Though most of them fluctuate in level, they are all very different in character to lakes like Tsad and N'gami, which, being situated in low, swampy ground, expand and contract enormously, in accordance with the seasons. Another class of lake is to be found in those expansions of a river's course in low or "spongy" ground, such as are common in the basin of the Congo. But all of these lakes are formed in areas of relative depression, and are, therefore, to be again differentiated from the lakelets or marshes bordering the shores of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, where there are small areas of absolute depression — that is to say, localities Ijing below the sea-level. One might go on multiplying instances of dissimilarity in the characteristics of the various lakes of Africa, but our present purpose has been served in what has already been said in regard to them.

Coinci- "VVe have completed our preliminary survey of the con-

poiiticai tinent in its oroQ-raphical and hydrographical relations —

settlement * ^ ./ O 1

with drain- skctchcd, it is true, in broad outlines ; but before proceeding

age-areas. ' ' ; i: o

in the next chapter to fill in details, attention should be directed to a very striking fact. It will be found, on comparing the maps, that what may be called political settlement in Africa has coincided very closely with the oceanic drainage-areas, while the inland drainage-areas have been , . . 1 practically deserted by man, as they have been paralysed ' ])y Nature.

Physical This phenomenon illustrates in a very lucid manner how

obstacles

against political Settlement is controlled by physical obstacles. In expansion, ^^^frica it has, in fact, after first finding a footing on the coasts, endeavoured to penetrate into the Interior by the most natural highways — tliose af'l'ordcd by tlic great river-systems. Bearing this parallel in niiud, we have at once some explanation of the fact that, lor instance, the Mediterranean Littoral has from time immemorial been European rather than African. The Sahara desert has proved an impassable barrier against any considerable political expansion southwards.

In practical politics, therefore, Africa may be said to be limited on the north by the Sahara-Mediterranean water-parting. Elsewhere we shall show how, in a far greater degree, physical obstacles of one kind or another have controlled or limited the expansion of political power in Africa, which, in its natural course, by following the lines of least resistance, would endeavour to proceed along the fluvial highways of the continent.