Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East; a study in national evolution

Front matter

A STUDY IN NATIONAL EVOLUTION

BY

HENRY DYER, C.E., M.A., D.Sc.

Preface

My object in the following pages has not been to give a history of modern Japan or detailed statistics of recent developments — to do that adequately would require at least a volume for the treatment of each of the main subjects mentioned in the different chapters — it has rather been to indicate the forces which have been at work in bringing about what is admitted to be the wonder of the latter half of the nineteenth century ; namely, the rise of Japan as a member of the comity of nations, and to note some of the chief results. Historical details are therefore omitted and the use of statistics has been limited to such figures as seemed necessary in order that a fairly complete picture might be given of the different aspects of national life which have gone to make modem Japan. As one who took an active part in the educational and engineering works which have been among the main factors in producing the great changes that have taken place, I have naturally given special attention to these and to their direct results on the national life, but at the same time I have endeavoured to take a wider view of the subject, and have at least indicated, I admit imperfectly, the inner forces which, after all, have been most powerful. It is well to remember that “ cause ” means the sum of the conditions which produce a viii Dai Nippon

phenomenon. I have noted what have seemed to me to be the chief conditions which have brought about the great developments that have taken place in Japan, but national evolution is such a complex phenomenon that it is difficult either to state exactly the nature of the conditions or to estimate their relative importance. One thing, however, is clear, and that is, the fact that the impulse came from within accounts in great part for the rapid progress which Japan has made in Western methods.

In Japan, as in other countries, the developments of industry and commerce have started forces which are causing many serious problems, not only of an economic but also of a social and moral nature, which will require very careful consideration. Lovers of Japan are somewhat dismayed at the disintegration of taste and ideals which is coming about in consequence of modern competition, and which is having very serious effects not only on the national life but also on international relations. My satisfaction at the great success which has attended the work of the students of the Imperial College of Engineering has been damped when I ponder over the problems which lie before Japan, but my consolation has come when I recognise that without that work Japan as a separate nationality would probably have disappeared under the aggression of Foreign Powers. The world cannot afford to lose such a unique nationality, not only because of its special qualities but also because it is the chief progressive force in the Far East. Although she is confronted with many difficult problems, Japan is now strong and determined not only to maintain her independence but to be a very important factor in the evolution which is rapidly transforming economic and political conditions in the Pacific area.

Without attempting the rdle of a prophet, I have in

IX

Preface

the concluding chapters glanced at some of the political, economic, and social results of modern developments, and have indicated some of the problems which I believe lie before Japan. On these subjects there will of course be great differences of opinion, and what I have said must be taken only for what it is worth ; but having a fairly intimate knowledge of the affairs of the country during the whole of the period of modern development, I venture to hope that I have at least suggested points which are worthy of the attention of all who are interested in the future of Japan. My own ideas with regard to that future are decidedly optimistic, and I believe that in material, intellectual, and moral influence Japan will fully justify her claim to be called the Britain of the East.

Instead of burdening the pages of the book with numerous notes and references to authorities, I have, at the end of each chapter, given the names of the most important books and documents I have consulted on the subjects of that chapter, and in the Appendix I have added a list of books and other publications which will be useful to those who wish detailed information on the important developments in Japan of which I have been able to give only a broad outline. I owe so much to my numerous friends in Japan, that it is impossible to name them all, but there are two who must be specially mentioned. Dr. Sakatani, the Vice-Minister of Finance, has kept me supplied with all the most important Government publications, and to him I am very grateful. The files of the Japan Daily Mail^ of which my old colleague Captain Brinkley is the editor, are mines of information not only for the details of current history but also for able and important discussions on all things Japanese. I receive the journal weekly from Japan, and it has been of great service to me. Captain Brinkley’s monumental book

X on Japan and China should be carefully studied by all who wish to know Japan. It deals with history, manners and customs, religion, art, politics and modern conditions, and gives full information on many points which I have been able only to touch. I have repeatedly quoted Captain Brinkley when dealing with subjects on which he is a special authority. My students in all parts of the country have not only kept me informed with regard to their work but have also discussed with me many of the questions on which I have touched in this book. Its plan renders necessary a certain amount of repetition of some of the main facts of modern Japanese history, so that my readers may understand their connection with the subjects directly under discussion, and logical arrangement has, to a certain extent, been sacrificed to the convenience of general readers.

Dowanhill, Glasgow,

September 1904.

Chapter I Page

The Imperial College of Engineering — Work of the College — Courses of study — Success of students — Departure from Japan — Results of work of College — Observations on the Continent and in Britain — Social Problems in Britain — Social Problems in Japan . . . i

Chapter II

Early Japanese history — The Emperor always the source of power and honour — Orders in the State — Forces causing downfall of Shogunate —

Early relations with foreigners — Some Japanese educators — Conditions on the arrival of foreigners in Japan — Fall of the Shogunate — Young men who became leaders — Embassy to foreign countries — Conversion of Mikado’s Court — Fall of feudalism ..... 14

Chapter III

Mistaken ideas about Japan — Motives of the Japanese — Necessity for a strong Japan — Oriental and Occidental thought — Constituents of Japanese thought — Resultant thought — Hara-kiri — Duty to State always first — Commercial morality — Japanese mental characteristics — Eastern people and Western thought — Results of European action — Personal experience of Japanese students — Charge of want of originality — Disproved by recent history — The spirit of the Revolution

xi

Chapter IV Page

Problems of the Revolution— Men of the Revolution— Central Government-Deliberative Assembly— Attitude towards foreigners— Lines of progress— Embassy to United States and Europe — Signs of trouble — Relations with Korea— Japan and Russia— Saghalin exchanged for the Kurile Islands— Results on Japanese affairs— Liu- Kiu and Formosa— Satsuma Rebellion — Agitation for representative institutions — Developments on Western lines — Difficulties with Korea — War with China —

Treaty of Shimonoseki — Aggression of Russia and Germany in China — Results on Japanese policy — Results in China — Alliance with Great Britain— Extent of Japanese Empire . . . . -51

Chapter V

Education in Old Japan — Beginning of foreign schools — Primary education — Secondary education — Training of teachers — Higher secondary schools — University education — Technical education — Art and music education — Special schools — Summary of educational statistics — Miscellaneous organisations — Private educational institutions — Moral education — Results of education . . . • . 78

Chapter VI

Army and navy as factors in the national evolution — Reorganisation of fighting material — Causes of recent developments — The army under the feudal system — New system introduced — Factories — First fighting of new army — Foundation of modern Japanese navy — The Naval College in Tokyo — Development of Japanese navy — Oversea wars — War with China and its results — Present conditions of Japanese navy — Training of Japanese naval officers — ^Japanese soldiers in the Boxer troubles — Japanese power as factors in the Far East .... 109

Chapter VII

Necessity for improved means of communication — Communications under the feudal system — Roads — Railways — Outline of history of railway construction — Working and financial returns — Railway legislation —

River improvements — Shipping — Beginning and development of modern Japanese mercantile marine — Open ports and harbours — Lighthouses — Telegraphs — Telephones — Postal services . .129

Contents

Xlll

Chapter VIII

Introduction of foreign industries — Conditions of native industries — Methods of native industries — Change of conditions — Supply of timber — Modern improvements in Japanese forestry — Mining and metallurgy — Civil and mechanical engineering — The Imperial Mint — Shipbuilding and shipping — Subsidies for shipping and shipbuilding — Cotton-spinning— The silk industries — Value of output of textile industries —

The printing industry — Chemical and miscellaneous industries — The building industry — Government factories — Manufacturing establishments— Working-hours, wages, etc. — Industrial training — Technical associations — Patents, trade marks, etc., inventions — Industrial exhibitions— Industrial legislation — Combinations of employers and workers — Foreign advisers — Status of foreigners under Japanese industrial laws — Japanese ambition regarding the future of commerce and industry . . . . . . . .151

Chapter IX

Importance of art in Japan — Art in Old Japan — Characteristics of Japanese art — Western influences — Foreign school of art — ^Japanese Art Society — Criticism of foreign art — Renewed ideals — Modern conditions — Eastern ideals — Art and economic conditions— Present conditions in Japan — Comparison with India — Future of Japanese art industries . . 204

Chapter X

Commerce in Old Japan — Results of new conditions — Development of foreign trade — Exports and imports — Distribution of Japan’s foreign trade — Balance of trade against Japan — Current prices of the chief articles of merchandise — Provisions for encouraging commerce — Commercial and industrial guilds — Tariffs — Social position and commercial morality of Japanese merchants — Position of foreign merchants in Japan .........

XIV

Chapter XI

Population and food supply — Agriculture in Old Japan — New conditions — Improvements in agriculture — Cultivation of tea — Sugar, sake, beer, tobacco, etc. — Capital and labour employed on the land — Means for encouraging agriculture — Agricultural legislation — Fish and other marine products — Government encouragement to fisheries — Importation of food ........

Chapter XII

Pressure of population — Department of Kaitakushi — Military colonies — Agriculture and marine products — Railways, mining and other industries — Immigration and population — Formosa — ^Japanese population in Formosa — Administration — Education, justice, and sanitation — Means of communication — Products and foreign trade — General effects of Japanese occupation of Formosa — Emigration to Korea and China — Emigration to other foreign countries ....

CHAPTER XHI

First principle enunciated by the Emperor — Tempered autocracy — First attempts at representative government — Evolution in direction of representative government — Agitation led by Itagaki — Edict announcing national assembly — Legislative and administrative reforms — New orders of nobility — Marquis Ito and the Constitution — Difficulties in working Constitution — Personal elements — Legislation

Chapter XIV

Problems of administration after the Restoration — New central Government — Changes in Government — Functions of the Cabinet — Privy Council and other advisory and administrative bodies — Administration of religion — Administration of justice — Officials — Local government

Contents

XV

Chapter XV Page

Financial position at the time of the Restoration — The old and the new taxation — Problems before the new Government — Financial administration— The land tax — Other sources of revenue — The burden of taxation on the people — National debt — Local finances — Banking systems — Present financial conditions ..... 292

Chapter XVI

Motives of Japanese — First treaty with a foreign power — New treaties — Feelings of Japanese with regard to the treaties — Foreign consular tribunals — Discussion on extra - territoriality — Captain Brinkley’s opinions — Attempts at treaty revision — Opinions of Sir Harry Parkes — Conferences on treaty revision — Negotiations renewed — Japanese aims — Approaching a settlement — Treaty with Great Britain revised- - Followed by other Powers — Imperial Rescript — Alliance with Great Britain — Remarks on treaty revision — Laws specially affecting foreigners — International business relations — Geographical advantages of Japan — Industrial competition with foreign nations — Japanese industrial influence in the Far East — ^Japanese industrial influence in the West . . . . . . . .311

CHAPTER XVH

Economic forces — Ambition to become the Britain of the East — Diplomatic action — Japanese ideas on foreign policy — Chinese opinions and ideals —Japanese influence in Japan — Japan and Korea — The case for Russia — Russian ideas — Expansion of Russia — Reasons w^hich dominate the foreign policy of Japan . . . , . . ,341

CHAPTER XVHI

The fundamental question — Life in Old Japan — Modern conditions — Life of the well-to-do classes — Life of the common people — Economic conditions of farmers and labourers — Home life and the position of women — Factory work of women and children — National health — Intercourse with foreigners — Labour and social problems ....

xvi Dai Nippon

CHAPTER XIX

National ideals and economics — Confucian philosophy of life — The task of Asia — Future financial and fiscal policy of Japan — Manufacturing industries — Effects on foreign policy — Ultimate solution of the problems of foreign policy — Future of constitutional government in Japan — Japan in Asia — The so-called “Yellow Peril” — Future of combinations of capital — Future of ethics in Japan — Future of religion in Japan

CHAPTER XX

The methods of history — The making of Japanese history — War begins — Japanese proclamation of war — Justification of Japanese action — Events of the war — Behaviour of Japanese troops — Japan in war-time — The secret of Russia’s failure — The secret of Japan’s success — Lessons for Great Britain — Lessons for the nations of the world

APPENDICES

Appendix A

Japanese weights, measures, and moneys, with English and French equivalents ........

Appendix B

Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain

Appendix C

Some of the more important recent books, etc., on Japan .

PAGE

Chapter I

In my preface I have briefly indicated the object of this book, but in order that my readers may understand my point of view and the trend of thought which runs through its pages, it is desirable that I should give a few preliminary explanations which will help to bring them, to a certain extent, within the sphere of my mental environment. The writing of even the simplest history necessitates rethinking it, and in that process the introduction of the personal equation is inevitable. A study of national evolution is much more complicated than a mere record of facts, and when an attempt is made to estimate the chief forces which have been at work, and not only to state their results in the past but also to indicate what they are likely to be in the future, it is evident that the value of the opinions expressed must depend, to a very large extent, on the personal experience of the writer. I have no intention, at present, of attempting to write my own natural history, and in making a short statement of some of the facts of my experience I do not put it forward as an apology for any of my shortcomings in my treatment of the subjects discussed in the book. I shall be content if it be accepted as an explanation.

When the embassy from Japan of which Iwakura, the Junior Prime Minister, was the head, came to Britain at the end of 1872, I was offered, through Professor Rankine of Glasgow University and Mr. H. M. Matheson, the agent o of the Public Works Department of Japan in London, the position of Principal of the Engineering College which The Imperial proposed to found in Tokyo. Mr. Ito

College (now Marquis Ito), one of the ambassadors, of Engineering. Vice-Minister of Public Works, and it was his

wish that a College should be organised which would train men who would be able to design and superintend the works which were necessary for Japan to carry on if she adopted Western methods. Fortunately, for some time previously I had made a special study of all the chief methods of scientific and engineering study in the different countries of the world and of the organisation of some of the most important institutions, with the intention of devoting myself to the advancement of engineering education in Britain, so that I had fairly definite ideas both as to what was desirable and what was possible. I little thought that my first experiments would be made in far Japan, a country which, at that time, was almost unknown to foreigners, but which is now leading the way not only in education but also in many of the arts of peace and war.

Mr. Ito was kind enough to arrange that his private secretary, Mr. Hayashi (now Viscount Hayashi, Japanese Minister in London), should accompany me to Japan, and we sailed from Southampton early in April 1873. time on

the voyage was chiefly occupied in writing a draft of the Calendar of the proposed College, and on my arrival in Tokyo I was able to present it complete to the Acting Vice-Minister of Public Works, and it was accepted by the Government without change of any kind.

I was pleasantly surprised to recognise in Mr. Yamao, the Acting Vice-Minister of Public Works, a man whom I had seen as a student in the evening classes of Anderson’s College, Glasgow (now incorporated in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College), when he was learning the practice of shipbuilding in Napier’s yard. I did not make his personal acquaintance during his stay in Glasgow, but his connection with that city gave us much in common.

Introdzictory 3

I wish to bear testimony to the whole - hearted support which he gave to all my proposals for the education of engineers, and to his personal kindness on every possible occasion. To his efforts much of the success of the College was due. Mr. Hayashi became Chief Commissioner of the College, representing the Department of Public Works and managing the finances and the administrative staff, while I, as Principal, was responsible for the educational arrangements. After seeing the College fairly started and rendering it most effective service, Mr. Hayashi entered the wider administrative departments of the Government and became Governor of one of the southern provinces. Later on, he became a member of the diplomatic service. After representing his country for several years in China, he acted as Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs during the war with China, and for his special services he was raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Hayashi. He next went to St. Petersburg as Minister Plenipotentiary for Japan ; he is now, as Viscount Hayashi, in a similar position in London, and he will be remembered in history as the diplomatist who carried on the final negotiations which resulted in the alliance between Gr-eat Britain and Japan.

While fully recognising the services of the representatives of the Japanese Government and the liberal support of the Government itself, it must of course be admitted work of the that the success which attended the work of College, the College was chiefly due to the enthusiastic manner in which the various members of the staff entered on their duties. We were, for the most part, young men without much experience, and in looking back I now recognise the risks which were run in placing us in such responsible positions. No doubt we made mistakes, but even our most severe critics admit that the College was the most successful educational institution in Japan. The subsequent careers of the members of the staff have proved the wisdom which was shown in their selection. The original professors of the College were W. E. Ayrton, Natural Philosophy ; D. H.

Marshall, M. A., Mathematics; Edward Divers, M.D., Chemistry ; Edmund F. Mondy, A.R.S.M., Drawing ; and William Craigie, M.A., English Language and Literature ; while George Cawley, Robert Clark, and Archibald King took charge of the practical parts of the instruction in engineering. Almost all these names are now well known in the world of science and education, and the bearers of them have not only distinguished themselves by their researches, but from their experience in Japan they have been able to exercise great influence in moulding the conditions of scientific and engineering education in this country.

Additions were made to the staff of the College as its work developed. John Milne, F.G.S., became Professor of Geology and Mining and made himself a world-wide reputation by his investigations in seismology ; John Perry, B.E., A. W. Thomson, B.Sc., Thomas Gray, B.Sc., and Thomas Alexander, C.E., as Professors in the Engineering Department, developed the methods of instruction and began the researches which have made them famous ; and Josiah Conder, A.R.LB.A., became Professor of Architecture and still remains in Japan in the practice of the profession by which he has done so much to meet the modern requirements of the country. Captain Brinkley, R.A., the distinguished Japanese scholar and authority on everything Japanese, was for some time Professor of Mathematics. To Captain Brinkley’s writings I am specially indebted for information on many of the points discussed in the following pages. Our first Professor of English, Mr. Craigie, was compelled to return to Scotland after a few years on account of his health, and his colleagues received the news of his death shortly afterwards, with great sorrow. He was succeeded by W. Gray Dixon, M.A., and he in turn by his brother, James M. Dixon, M.A., both of whom did excellent work in their own department. We soon gathered round the foreign staff of the College a number of Japanese assistants, who in a comparatively short time were able to render very efficient service.

With such an able staff, all enthusiastic in the work, the

College was certain to be a success if all the other conditions were favourable. The Japanese authorities did all in their power to bring about that success. Within five years from its institution, handsome and commodious buildings had been erected and the most improved appliances of all kinds supplied for teaching purposes. The general arrangements which I made for the course of training were such as to meet the requirements of the country. It extended over six years, the first and second of which were devoted to

. . . , - Courses of study.

the general training required for all departments of engineering. At the beginning of the third year the students selected the special departments which they wished to follow. The technical courses were — {a) Civil Engineering, {U) Mechanical Engineering, {c) Telegraphy, {d) Architecture, {e) Practical Chemistry, (/) Mining, {g) Metallurgy. Naval Architecture was added a few years later. One-half of the third and fourth years was spent at College, and the other half at practical work. The last two years of the course were spent entirely at practical work.

In this way the students obtained a fair introduction to the theory and the practice of their profession, and there can be no doubt that the success which has attended their work has been, in great part, due to the method adopted in their training. In the College itself mere book-work was made of secondary importance, and by means of drawing offices, laboratories, and practical engineering works the students were taught the relations between theory and practice, and trained in habits of observation and original thought. The College being in the Department of Public Works, the students had the run of all the engineering establishments and public works under its control, and in this way they had exceptional advantages. I do not propose to enter into further details of the work of the College, my present object being simply to give a general sketch of the methods employed.

Some of our first graduates were sent over to Universities and Colleges in Britain, and without exception they distinguished themselves in their classes, not infrequently taking the first place. The best proof, however, of the Success value of the training which they received is of students, excellent work which the students have

done since they left College, as there are few engineering or industrial works in Japan in which they are not to be found taking an active part in the management.

Having been about ten years in Japan and seen the College firmly established, for personal and family reasons Departure I resigned my position, and on my suggestion from Japan. p)j.^ Edward Divers was appointed Principal of the College, and instructions were sent to the agents in London to select a man who would take up my work as Professor of Engineering. Charles Dickenson West, M.A., University of Dublin, was appointed, and he still continues to occupy the Professorship of Mechanical Engineering in the Engineering College of Tokyo University. As marks of appreciation of my services the Emperor bestowed on me the Order of the Rising Sun (Third Class), the highest honour of the kind given to any foreign employe up to that time, and the Government conferred on me the title of Honorary Principal of the College. Since the Engineering College was made a College of the University of Tokyo, I have been appointed Emeritus Professor of that institution. My students have taken an active part in the formation and carrying on of many associations and societies in connection with engineering and science, and they have elected me an Honorary Member of the most important of these, and I receive frequent communications from them informing me of their work. The former students of the Imperial College of Engineering (Kobu-Daigakko) are now to be found not only in all the most important engineering and industrial undertakings in Japan, but a considerable number of them are actively engaged in China and Korea ; so that the College has been a most important factor in bringing about the changes in Japan and in influencing conditions in the P^ar East generally.

The extent of these changes and the amount of that influence will be indicated very plainly in the following pages, and I might quote from contemporary Results of work journals and subsequent observers to show the of College, place which the College took in the national evolution of Japan, but space will allow me to mention the opinions only of a few who were able to judge of the actual results. On the occasion of his last visit to Britain, Marquis Ito was unable to visit Scotland as he had expected to do, as events called him back to Japan, but Viscount Hayashi wrote stating that the Marquis had expressed his high appreciation of my services in Japan, saying, “That Japan can boast to-day of being able to undertake such industrial works as the construction of railways, telegraphs, telephones, shipbuilding, working of mines, and other manufacturing works entirely by the hands of Japanese engineers is mainly attributable to the College so ably established and set in motion by you.” The Marquis had previously expressed similar

opinions to Mr. Alfred Stead, who records that in the course of an interview with him he said, “ When I was in London, engaged in my work of preparing the Japanese Constitution, I was approached on the subject of forming a special Engineering College in Japan. It was pointed out that the advantages would be very great for the country, and that such a scheme of engineering education had never been carried out in any other country. Accordingly I established the College, and brought many foreign Professors to Japan for that purpose. The Japanese engineers who are now running the most important concerns in Japan were trained in the College and can dispense altogether with foreign aid.” ^ The opinions of the Marquis have been confirmed by many of the leading men in Japan and by others who have had opportunities of judging.

In his interesting and valuable book, Japan in Transitio7i^ Mr. Stafford Ransome, M.InstC.E., who spent considerable time in Japan as the special commissioner of the well-known ^ Stead, Our New A/ly, p. 57.

journal, The Engineer^ says : “ Although the higher branches of modern technical training had been experimented with in Japan at a somewhat earlier period, it was not until 1873, when Mr. Henry Dyer was engaged by the Japanese Government, that a solid system of technical education was inaugurated.” In his review of the circumstances which led to “Japan’s Accession to the Comity of Nations,” Baron Alexander von Siebold says : “ After the Restoration of the monarchy the first attempts were made with the help of English and American teachers, to introduce something like unity into the system of public instruction. Of these endeavours the immediate result was the establishment of the ‘ Imperial College of Engineering,’ which had reached a flourishing state by the year 1875. The founding of this Polytechnical College was a particularly happy idea of the Japanese Government, aiming, as it did, simultaneously with the introduction of railways and telegraphs, and the training of a native staff of experts to work them. That institution has already borne rich fruit. The whole of Japan is now covered with a network of railways, which are being constantly extended.”