My Life on the Plains

Front matter

MY LIFE ON THE PLAINS.

OR,

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH INDIANS.

II

IF die character of die Indian is enveloped in mystery, how much more so is his origin. From his earliest history to die present time learned men have striven to unravel this mystery, and to trace the genealogy of the red man to its original source. But in spite of all study and the deepest research capahle of heing hrought to hear on this subject, it is to-day surrounded by a darkness almost as deep and impenetrable as diat which enfolded it centuries ago. Various writers of ability have attempted to prove diat die Indians came from eastern Asia; others trace them to Africa, others to Phoenicia, while another class believes them to be autochdiones. In favor of each of diese beliefs strong circumstantial evidence can be produced. By closely studying the customs, costumes, faith, and religious traditions of die various tribes, a striking homogeneity is seen to exist. At the same time and from die same sources we are enabled to discover satisfactory resemblances between certain superstitions and religious rites practised among the Indian tribes and those which prevailed at one time among die ancient Persians, die Hebrews, and die Chaldeans. They who adhere to die belief of disparity of origin may readily adduce arguments in refutation of an opposite theory. The apparent similarity found to exist in die customs, dress, and religious rites of different tribes may be partially accounted for by their long intercourse under like circumstances, die effect of which would necessarily be an assimilation in beliefs and usages to a greater or less degree.

The preponderance of facts inclines strongly in favor of that theory which does not ascribe unity of origin to die Indian tribes. Passing down die Mississippi to Mexico, and from Mexico to Peru, there once existed an unbroken chain of tribes, which, either in a peaceful or warlike manner, maintained a connection and kept up an intercourse with each other. In various ways proofs have been discovered that at one time the most northern tribes must have held intercourse with die civilized nations of Peru and Mexico. These evidences have been seized upon by certain savants to support die theory that die Indian tribes of North America are descendants of the Aztecs and other kindred nations of die south— arriving at this conclusion from die fact of an apparent similarity in history, psychology, traditions, and customs. But by studying die migrations and tendencies of ancient nations, and making allowance for such modifications as climatic influences, intermarriage, contact with civilization, and an altered mode of living would necessarily produce upon any branch of die human race— remembering, too, that in the vast majority of cases relating to our subject we must be guided by tradition rather than history— it is not difficult to establish a strong typical likeness between die tribes of American Indians and some of die nations of most remote antiquity. When or in what exact manner they first reached this continent is a problem difficult of solution. This theory necessarily involves die admission of emigration to this continent centuries before the landing of Columbus. Upon this point there is much that may be inferred, and not a little susceptible of strong proof.

When civilization made its first inroads within the horders of this continent, numerous tribes, each powerful in numbers, were found inhabiting it. Each tribe had its peculiar customs, whether of war, the chase, or religion. They exhibited some close resemblances as well as widely different traits of character. That they sprang from different nations rather than from a single source seems highly probable. It is said that when tire Spaniards conquered Yucatan a number of intelligent Indians declared that by traditions from their ancestors they had learned that their country had been peopled by nations coming from the east, whom God had delivered from their enemies by opening a road for them across the sea.

Few persons will deny that the existence of America was believed in if not positively known centuries before its discovery by Columbus. Even so far back as tire time of Alexander tire Great, a historian named Theopompus, in giving a dialogue that took place between Midas and Silenus, credits the latter with saying that Europe, Asia, and Africa were only islands, but that a vast fertile continent existed beyond tire sea. This continent was peopled by a race of powerful men, and gold and silver were abundant on its surface. Hanno, eight hundred years before Christ, made a voyage along the coast of Africa, and sailed due west for thirty days. From the account which he afterward wrote of his voyage, it is probable that he saw portions of America or some of tire West India islands. Reference is also made by Homer and Horace to the existence of islands at a long distance west of Europe and Africa. Diodorus speaks of an immense island many days' sail to the west of Africa; immense rivers flowed from its shores; its inhabitants resided in beautiful mansions; its soil was fruitful and highly cultivated. The description corresponds with that given of Mexico by the Spaniards who first discovered it. Aristotle makes mention of it in the following terms: "It is said that die Carthaginians have discovered beyond tire Pillars of Hercules a very fertile island, but which is without inhabitants, yet full of forests, of navigable rivers, and abounding in fruit. It is situated many days' journey from the mainland."

After tire discovery of America Europeans were surprised to find in villages in Guatemala inhabitants wearing tire Arabian masculine costume and the Jewish feminine costume. Travellers in South America have discovered Israelites among tire Indians. This discovery strengthens the theory given by Garcia, a Spanish writer, that the Indians are the descendants of the tribes of Israel that were led captive into Assyria. Many of the Indian customs and religious rites closely resemble those of the Israelites. In many tribes the Indians offer the first fruits of the earth and of the chase to the Great Spirit. They have also certain ceremonies at stated periods. Their division of the year corresponds with the Jewish festivals. In some tribes the brother of a deceased husband receives the widow into his lodge as his legitimate wife. Some travellers claim to have seen circumcision practised among certain tribes. Another analog}' between the Jews and the Indians is seen in their purifications, baths, anointings, fasts, manner of praying, and abstaining from certain quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles considered impure. In general Indians are only permitted to marry in dieir own tribe. Some tribes are said to carry with them an ark similar to die one mentioned in Holy Writ. I know diat all tribes widi which I have been brought in contact carry widi diem a mysterious something which is regarded with die utmost sacredness and veneration, and upon which die eye of no white man at least is ever permitted to rest. Then again die "medicine man" of the tribe, who is not, as his name implies, die physician, but stands in die character of high priest, assumes a dress and manner corresponding to diose of die Jewish high, priest. Mr. Adair, who spent forty years among the various northern tribes, and who holds to die idea diat die Indian is descended from die Hebrew, asserts diat he discovered an unmistakable resemblance between various Indian words and die Hebrew intended to express the same idea. He furdier asserts diat he once heard an Indian apply die following expression to a culprit: " Tschi kaksit canaha"— Thou art like unto a Canaanite sinner.

Numerous evidences and various audiorities go to prove that prior to die discovery of America by Columbus a series of voyages had been made from die old to the new continent. The historical records of die Scandinavians, describing dieir migratory expeditions, fix not only die dates of such excursions, but also the exact points on the American coast at which landings were made and colonies established. In 1002, Thorwald Ericsson, following the example of his countrymen, began a voyage, during which he landed near Cape Cod. He was afterward slain in an encounter widi die natives. Other expeditions were undertaken by die Scandinavians at subsequent periods down to die early part of die fifteenth century, when, owing to various causes of decline, including savage wars and disease, these early explorers lost dieir foothold on die American continent and disappeared from its limits. But from die nindi to die fifteendi century it is easily proved by dieir historical records and traditions that die American continent had been visited and occupied by pioneers from die Scandinavians. From die great number of inscriptions, antique utensils, arms, bones, and monuments discovered in the New England States, it is fair to presume diat diese adventurers had occupied a larger portion of die new continent than their manuscripts would lead us to suppose. At die same time die discoveries in the Western States and territories of mounds containing human bones, earthen vessels, and weapons whose form and structure prove diat dieir original owners belonged to a different people from any widi which we are acquainted at die present day, should be received as evidence strongly confirmatory of die early migrations claimed to have been made by die Scandinavians and odier nations.

Admitting diat diere are certain physiological attributes common to nearly all the Indian tribes, sufficiently decided and clear to enable diem to be classed togedier as one branch of die human family, yet an intimate study of all the tribes of North America will develop physical diversities sufficiently ample to justify die belief diat die various tribes may have sprung from different nationalities. We find diem, aldiough generally of a copper color, presenting all shades of complexion from a deep black to a shade of white. Some tribes are of powerful stature, others are dwarfed. So marked are diese differences that a person accustomed to meeting die various tribes can at a glance distinguish the individuals of one from the other. Almost every tribe possesses a language peculiarly its own, and what seems remarkable is die fact diat no matter how long or how intimately two tribes may be associated with each other, they each preserve and employ dieir own language, and individuals of die one tribe rarely become versed in die spoken language of die odier, all intercommunication being carried on eidier by interpreters or in die universal sign language. This is noticeably true of Cheyennes and Arapahos, two tribes which for years have lived in close proximity to each odier, and who are so strongly bound togedier, offensively and defensively, as to make common cause against die enemies of either, particularly against die white man. These tribes encamp together, hunt togedier, and make war togedier, yet but a comparatively small number of either can speak fluently die language of die odier. I remember to have had an interview at one time with a number of prominent chiefs belonging to five different tribes, die Cheyennes, Kiowas, Osages, Kaws, and Apaches. In communicating with them it was necessary for my language to be interpreted into each of die five Indian tongues, no representatives of any two of the tribes being able to understand die language of each odier; yet all of diese tribes were accustomed to more or less intimate association. Between die tribes which inhabited die Eastern States and those originally found on die Plains a marked difference is seen to exist. They have but little in common, while a difference equally marked is discovered between die Indians of die Plains and diose of die mountain regions furdier west, as well as die tribes of both Old and New Mexico.

Inseparable from die Indian character, wherever he is to be met with, is his remarkable taciturnity, his deep dissimulation, the perseverance with which he follows his plans of revenge or conquest, his concealment and apparent lack of curiosity, his stoical courage when in die power of his enemies, his cunning, his caution, and last, but not least, die wonderful power and subdety of his senses. Of this last I have had most interesting proof, one instance of which will be noted when describing die Washita campaign. In studying the Indian character, while shocked and disgusted by many of his traits and customs, I find much to be admired, and still more of deep and unvarying interest. To me Indian life, with its attendant ceremonies, mysteries, and forms, is a book of unceasing interest. Grant diat some of its pages are frightful, and, if possible, to be avoided, yet the attraction is none the weaker. Study him, fight him, civilize him if you can, he remains still the object of your curiosity, a type of man peculiar and undefined, subjecting himself to no known law of civilization, contending determinedly against all efforts to win him from his chosen mode of life. He stands in the group of nations solitary and reserved, seeking alliance with none, mistrusting and opposing the advances of all. Civilization may and should do much for him, but it can never civilize him. A few instances to the contrary may be quoted, but these are susceptible of explanation. No tribe enjoying its accustomed freedom has ever been induced to adopt a civilized mode of life, or, as they express it, to follow the white man's road. At various times certain tribes have forsaken the pleasures of the chase and the excitement of the war-path for the more quiet life to be found on the "reservation." Was this course adopted voluntarily and from preference? Was it because the Indian chose the ways of his white brother rather than those in which he had been born and bred?

In no single instance has this been true. What then, it may be asked, have been the reasons which influenced certain tribes to abandon their predatory, nomadic life, and to-day to influence others to pursue a similar course? The answer is clear, and as undeniable as it is clear. The gradual and steady decrease in numbers, strength, and influence, occasioned by wars both with other tribes and with the white man, as well as losses brought about by diseases partly attributable to contact with civilization, have so lowered the standing and diminished the available fighting force of the tribe as to render it unable to cope with more powerful neighboring tribes with any prospect of success. The stronger tribes always assume an overbearing and dominant manner toward their weaker neighbors, forcing them to join in costly and bloody wars or themselves to be considered enemies. When a tribe falls from the position of a leading one, it is at the mercy of every tribe that chooses to make war, being forced to take sides, and at the termination of the war is generally sacrificed to the interests of the more powerful. To avoid these sacrifices, to avail itself of the protection of civilization and its armed forces, to escape from the ruining influences of its more warlike and powerful neighbors, it reluctantly accepts the situation, gives up its accustomed haunts, its wild mode of life, and nestles down under the protecting arm of its former enemy, the white man, and tries, however feebly, to adopt his manner of life. In making this change the Indian has to sacrifice all that is dear to his heart; he abandons the only mode of life in which he can be a warrior and win triumphs and honors worthy to be sought after; and in taking up the pursuits of the white man he does that which he has always been taught from his earliest infancy to regard as degrading to his manhood— to labor, to work for his daily bread, an avocation suitable only for squaws.

To those who advocate the application of die laws of civilization to die Indian, it might be a profitable study to investigate die effect which such application produces upon the strength of die tribe as expressed in numbers. Looking at him as die fearless hunter, the matchless horseman and warrior of die Plains, where Nature placed him, and contrasting him widi die reservation Indian, who is supposed to be revelling in die delightful comforts and luxuries of an enlightened condition, but who in reality is grovelling in beggary, bereft of many of die qualities which in his wild state tended to render him noble, and heir to a combination of vices partly his own, partly bequeathed, to him from die pale -face, one is forced, even against desire, to conclude diat there is unending antagonism between die Indian nature and diat widi which his well-meaning white brodier would endow him. Nature intended him for a savage state; every instinct, every impulse of his soul inclines him to it. The white race might fall into a barbarous state, and afterwards, subjected to the induence of civilization, be reclaimed and prosper. Not so the Indian. He cannot be himself and be civilized; he fades away and dies. Cultivation such as die white man would give him deprives him of his identity. Education, strange as it may appear, seems to weaken radier dian strengdien his intellect. Where do we find any specimens of educated Indian eloquence comparing widi diat of such native, untutored orators as Tecumseh, Osceola, Red Jacket, and Logan; or, to select from diose of more recent fame, Red Cloud of the Sioux, or Sa-tan-ta of die Kiowas?

Unfortunately for the lastnamed chief, whose name has been such a terror to our frontier settlements, he will have to be judged for other qualities dian that of eloquence. Attention has more recently been directed to him by his arrest by the military autiiorities near Fort Sill, Indian Territory, and his transportation to Texas for trial by civil court for various murders and depredations, alleged to have been committed by him near the Texas frontier. He has since had his trial, and, if public rumor is to be credited, has been sentenced to deadi. Reference will be made to diis noted chief in succeeding pages. His eloquence and able arguments upon die Indian question in various councils to which he was called won for him die deserved title of "Orator of die Plains." In his boasting harangue before die General of die Army, which furnished die evidence of his connection with die murders for which he has been tried and sentenced, he stated as a justification for such outrages, or radier as die occasion of diem, diat they were in retaliation for his arrest and imprisonment by me some diree years ago. As there are two sides to most questions, even if one be wrong, when the proper time arrives a brief account of Sa-tan-ta's arrest and imprisonment, widi die causes leading diereto, will be given in diese sketches. One of die favorite remarks of Sa-tan-ta in his orations, and one too which odier chiefs often indulge in, being dirown out as a "glittering generality," meaning much or litde as diey may desire, but most often die latter, was that he was tired of making war and desired now "to follow die white man's road."

It is scarcely to be presumed diat he found die gratification of this oft-expressed desire in recently following the "white man's road" to Texas, under strong guard and heavily manacled, widi hanging, to die Indian die most dreaded of all deadis, plainly in the perspective. Aside, however, from his character for resdess barbarity, and activity in conducting merciless forays against our exposed frontiers, Sa-tan-ta is a remarkable man— remarkable for his powers of oratory, his determined warfare against the advances of civilization, and his opposition to die abandonment of his accustomed mode of life, and its exchange for die quiet, unexciting, uneventful life of a reservation Indian. If I were an Indian, I often diink diat I would gready prefer to cast my lot among diose of my people who adhered to die free open plains, radier dian submit to die confined limits of a reservation, diere to be the recipient of die blessed benefits of civilization, with its vices dirown in widiout stint or measure. The Indian can never be permitted to view die question in this deliberate way. He is neidier a luxury nor necessary of life. He can hunt, roam, and camp when and wheresoever he pleases, provided always diat in so doing he does not run contrary to die requirements of civilization in its advancing tread. When die soil which he has claimed and hunted over for so long a time is demanded by this to him insatiable monster, diere is no appeal; he must yield, or, like die car of Juggernaut, it will roll mercilessly over him, destroying as it advances. Destiny seems to have so willed it, and die world looks on and nods its approval. At best die history of our Indian tribes, no matter from what standpoint it is regarded, affords a melancholy picture of loss of life. Two hundred years ago it required millions to express in numbers the Indian population, while at the present time less than half the number of diousands will suffice for die purpose. Where and why have diey gone? Ask die Saxon race, since whose introduction into and, occupation of die country diese vast changes have been effected.

But littie idea can be formed of die terrible inroads which diseases before unknown to diem have made upon their numbers. War has contributed its share, it is true, but disease alone has done much to depopulate many of die Indian tribes. It is stated that the small-pox was first introduced among diem by the white man in 1837, and diat in die short space of one mondi six tribes lost by this disease alone twelve diousand persons.

Confusion sometimes arises from the division of the Indians into nations, tribes, and bands. A nation is generally a confederation of tribes which have sprung from a common stock or origin. The tribe is intended to embrace all bands and villages claiming a common name, and is presided over by a head chief, while each band or village is presided over by one or more subordinate chiefs, but all acknowledging a certain allegiance to the head or main village. This - division cannot always he accounted for. It arises sometimes from necessity, where die entire tribe is a large one, and it is difficult to procure game and grazing in one locality sufficient for all. In such cases the various bands are not usually separated by any great distance, but regulate dieir movements so as to be able to act in each odier's behalf . Sometimes a chief more warlike than die odiers, who favors war and conquest at all times, and refuses to make peace even when his tribe assents to it, will separate himself, with those who choose to unite their fortunes with his, from the remainder of die tribe, and act for die time independendy. Such a character produces endless trouble; his village becomes a shelter and rendezvous for all die resdess spirits of die tribe. While die latter is or pretends to be at peace, this band continues to make war, yet when pressed or pursued avails itself of the protection of those who are supposed to be peaceable.

Having hurriedly sketched the country in which we shall find it necessary to go, and glanced at certain theories calculated to shed some light on die origin and destiny of die Indian tribes, the succeeding pages will be devoted to my personal experience on the Plains, commencing with the expedition of Major-General Hancock in die spring of 1867.

III

"THERE are two class of people who are always eager to get up an Indian was— the army and our frontiersmen."

I quote from an editorial on die Indian question, which not long since appeared in the columns of one of the leading New York daily newspapers. That this statement was honestly made I do not doubt, but that instead of being true it could not have been further from the truth I will attempt to show. I assert, and all candid persons familiar with the subject will sustain die assertion, that of all classes of our population, die army and die people living on the frontier entertain die greatest dread of an Indian war, and are willing to make die greatest sacrifices to avoid its horrors. This is a proposition, the assertion of which almost carries its proof with it.

Under the most auspicious circumstances, and in time of peace with die Indians, die life of an army officer on die Plains or along our frontier is at best one involving no little personal discomfort, and demanding die sacrifice of many of die luxuries and benefits which he could obtain were he located within die limits of civilization. To many officers, sendee in the West amounts almost to social exile. Some can have their families with or near them. There is a limited opportunity for social intercourse; travel from the States, to and across the Plains, either for business or pleasure, is uninterrupted, and mail facilities with friends and relations in tire States are maintained. An Indian war changes all this. The troops must prepare to take the field. Provided with but few comforts, necessarily limited in this respect by tire amount of transportation, which on the Plains is narrowed down to tire smallest practicable, tire soldier bids adieu— often a final one— to tire dear ones of home, and with his comrades in arms sets out, no matter how inclement tire season, to seek what? fame and glory? How many military men have reaped laurels from their Indian campaigns? Does he strive to win the approving smile of his countrymen? That is indeed, in this particular instance, a difficult task. For let him act as he may in conducting or assisting in a campaign against tire Indians, if he survives tire campaign he can feel assured of this fact, that one -half of his fellowcitizens at home will revile him for his zeal and pronounce his success, if he achieves any, a massacre of poor, defenceless, harmless Indians; while tire other half, if his efforts to chastise the common enemy are not crowned with satisfactory results, will cry "Down with him. Down with the regular army, and give us brave volunteers who can serve the Government in other ways besides eating rations and drawing pay."

An unsuccessful campaign, under which head nineteen out of twenty may reasonably be classed, satisfies no portion of tire public, and greatly dissatisfies that portion of the Western population whose knowledge of tire murders and depredations committed by the Indians is, unlike that of tire people of tire States further east, of too recent origin to be swept away by false notions of clemency. During tire continuance of tire campaign both officers and soldiers are generally cut off from all communication with tire friends left behind. Couriers, sent as bearers of a few despatches and letters, are sometimes under cover of tire night enabled to make their way back to tire forts; but even these fail sometimes. I now recollect tire circumstance of two trusty scouts being sent with despatches and a small mail, to make their way from tire southern portion of Kansas to Fort Dodge on the Arkansas. When we saw them again we beheld their lifeless, mangled remains, their bodies pierced with numerous arrows, and mutilated almost beyond recognition— our letters scattered here and there by the savages, who had torn open the little canvas mail-bag in search of plunder. The Indians had surrounded these faithful fellows when within about ten miles of tire end of their perilous journey. The numerous empty cartridge shells which lay around and near the bodies of the two men, proved how persistently and bravely they had struggled for their lives.

The opening of air Indian campaign is also tire signal for tire withdrawal of all privileges and enjoyments, such as leaves of absence, visits from Eastern friends, hunting and pleasure parties of all kinds. The reception from tire East of all luxuries and delicacies for tire table and of all current literature, such as tire numerous railroads being constructed in the West, particularly the two Pacifies, render easy of procurement, ceases; and not only the private soldier but the officer is limited in his mess fare to an indifferent portion of the ordinary ration. Is it probable or reasonable that these objects and results, the principal ones generally, so far as the army as individuals is concerned, would be considered sufficient to render eidier officers or soldiers "eager to get up an Indian war?" I have yet to make the acquaintance of diat officer of die army who, in time of undisturbed peace, desired a war widi die Indians. On die contrary, die army is die Indian's best friend, so long as the latter desires to maintain friendship. It is pleasant at all times, and always interesting, to have a village of peaceable Indians locate their lodges near our frontier posts or camps. The daily visits of die Indians, from the most venerable chief to die strapped pappoose, their rude interchange of civilities, their barterings, races, dances, legends, strange customs, and fantastic ceremonies, all combine to render them far more agreeable as friendly neighbors than as crafty, bloodthirsty enemies.

As to die frontiersman, he has everything to lose, even to life, and nothing to gain by an Indian war. "His object is to procure a fat contract or a market for his produce," adds die journal from which the opening lines of this chapter are quoted. This seems plausible and likely enough. But does that journal, and do the people who believe on this question as it does, know that there are two reasonsmore are not required— why its statement is a very great error? First, our frontier farmers, busily employed as they are in opening up their farms, never have any produce to dispose of, but consider themselves fortunate if they have sufficient for their personal wants. They are never brought in contact with die Indian except when die latter makes a raid or incursion of at least hundreds of miles, and attacks die settlements. It is another case of Mohammed and the mountain. The frontiersman never goes beyond the settlements. The Indian forsakes his accustomed hunting-grounds when ambitious of obtaining scalps or plunder, and visits the settlements. The only ground upon which die frontiersman can be accused of inspiring or inciting a war with die Indian is, that when applied to by die latter to surrender his life, family, and property, scalp thrown in, he stoutly refuses, and sometimes employs force to maintain this refusal. I have shown that this abused class of the pioneers of civilization have no hand in die fat contracts. Who are die fortunate parties? With but rare exceptions our most expensive expeditions against die Indians on die Plains have been supplied by contracts made with parties far inside the limits of civilization, who probably never saw a hostile Indian, and who never even visited die Indian country. The supplies are purchased far from die frontiers, in die rich and thickly settled portions of die States, then shipped by rail and boat to the most available military post, from which point they are generally drawn by huge trains of army wagons, or carried on pack animals.