Condition of the border at the Union; destruction of the Graham clan

Front matter

iX) or (Xh u)o rrC

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

Preface

Much light has recently been thrown upon a peculiarly interesting period of Border history by the diligent researches of Sir Maxwell Lyte and his colleagues of the National Manuscripts Commission.

Although we have abundant records of all the great Border events of the sixteenth century down to the death of Elizabeth, it is surprising how little we accurately know of the barbarous methods employed in the final overthrow of the Border clans at the time of the Union of the two Kingdoms, when James Stuart of Scotland mounted the throne as James the First of Great Britain.

And yet there was nothing in the history of that memorable reign (save perhaps the gunpowder plot) of greater political importance, and surely there was nothing of greater dramatic interest.

vi PREFACE

Curiously, neither Hume nor Lingard give so much as a single page to the discussion of this great question which stood supremely first among the problems calling for solution, by reason of the great change in the government of the two kingdoms. One might almost be inclined to think there had been a conspiracy of silence, arising from a sense of shame, regarding the dark details of Court intrigue, confiscations, banishments, and indiscriminate executions in the Border towns, which stained the opening years of the United Kingdom.

The largest clan in number, at this period, though of small importance as a fighting force, was that of the Grahams of Eskdale. Their lands were the most valuable and extensive on the Border, and the natural fertility of the soil had begun to lure the community, in continually increasing numbers, into the peaceful pursuits of tillage. Still a large number of the clan were avowed raiders, as their fathers had been, but neither better nor worse than their neighbours of other clans on both sides of the Border. And the only apparent reason why immediate and merciless destruction fell upon the Grahams on the accession of King James, was their possession of those valuable acres which the King had been

PREFACE

VI 1 persuaded to confer, as a free gift, upon one of his worthless favourites, who chanced to be a personage of importance in the north country.

Among the descendants of the Eskdale clan there are stories in circulation to this day of the calamities which overwhelmed the homes of their forefathers in the days of King James, but these woeful tales of ancient date, with little or no historical corroboration, had for the most part faded away into the category of myths. Even the Border ballad writers, to whom we are so much indebted for our knowledge of the deeds of other days, are silent regarding the enormities of the Eskdale crusade.

We are therefore greatly indebted to the indefatigable industry of the National Manuscript Commission in bringing to light from the archives of various historical mansions on the Border, papers and letters, giving so much interesting — indeed, in some cases, almost sensational confirmation, of much that had come to be considered as old wives' stories, or little more than historical cobwebs.

The most valuable collection of these ancient papers is that belonging to Lord Muncaster, at Muncaster Castle.

They are kept in large iron boxes in the viii PREFACE

Muniment Room (a curious vaulted chamber constructed in the thickness of the wall, in this fine old border mansion), and in these documents we have a fairly perfect record of the extraordinary proceedings at Carlisle, where King James' Commission met, ostensibly for the general pacification of the Border, but really for a very different purpose.

Thinking it might be interesting to many of my Border friends, especially those of my own race, I have made a selection from those papers of certain of the most remarkable facts which I shall endeavour to string into narrative as clearly as one unpractised in the art of literary exposition may hope to succeed in doing. At the outset, however, I find the task I have set myself involves a good deal more labour and research than I anticipated, as no clear understanding of the evil conditions existing on the Border at the time of the Union is possible without a preliminary glance at the extraordinary current of political events which gave birth to, and gradually developed, the system of raiding or rieving.

How the Mosstrooper grew into power and importance as a defender of his country's frontier, and why he was allowed to attain

PREFACE

IX to fighting capabilities so dangerous and difficult to control, has been so exhaustively dealt with by Mr. Bruce Armstrong in his History of Liddesdale, and by the Rev. Robert Borland in his Border Raids and Raiders, that I would recommend the perusal of these excellent works to all who are keenly interested in Border lore. It will, however, be necessary in this little book to glance at several of those critical events of the sixteenth century which engendered the fierce international hatred, mainly instrumental in creating that unprecedented compound of humanity in which were mingled so many of the qualities we most admire, with others which we most abhor, known to history as the warrior, patriot, and freebooter of the Border. Some of those events, apart from their historical importance, possess a fascinating air of romance peculiarly their own. They exhibit so many instances of bravery, fidelity, and deeds of humanity even amidst the uproar and slaughter of the fray that to this day over the Border land, if anywhere, the spirit of chivalry has a traditional right to brood.

J. G.

HUNTINGSTILE, GRASMERE, April, 1905.

Chapter I. Origin Of The Raider

Invasions of Edward — Sack of Berwick — Scott of Buccleuch — Methods of the Raider. pp. 1-12

Chapter II. Primitive Courts Of Justice

Punitive Expeditions under the Earl of Angus — Blackmail — Warden's Court — Abuse of power by the Warden — Formalities of the Court — Deadly Feuds — Beacon Lights — Debateable Land.

CHAPTER IIL

LORD MAXWELL.

Invasion of Debateable land by Lord Dacre — Defeated by the Armstrongs — Armstrongs excluded from Carlisle Market — Reprisals — Helplessness of Lord Dacre — Bothwell Keeper of Liddesdale — Unruly Barons of the West Marches — Advance of James V. towards the Border — Execution of Cockburn of Henderland. pp. 32-46 xii CONTENTS

Chapter IV. Johnie Armstrong

Lord Maxwell and Charteris of Amisfield experts in cattlelifting — Disobedience of the Border Barons — Maxwell's jealousy of Gilnockie — King James at Carlanrigg — Murder of Gilnockie.

Chapter V. Wrath Of King Henry VIII

Loyalty of the Armstrongs shaken — Raids into Northumberland — Anger of the English King — Invasion of Scotland under the Earl of Hertford — Second invasion under Euer — Battle of Ancrum Moor. pp. 63-70

CHAPTER VL

THE SEVENTH EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND.

Northumberland Warden of Eastern and Middle Marches — His great popularity on the Border — Hostility of Cecil — Catholic rising — Northumberland involved — Takes refuge in Liddesdale — Heroism of his devoted Wife. - - - . . pp^ 71-98

CHAPTER VIL NORTHUMBERLAND BETRAYED.

Treachery of Hector Armstrong of Harelaw — Northumberland captured— A Prisoner in Loch Leven Castle— Sold to England by the Scottish Regent for ten thousand crowns. - pp. 99-114

CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER VIII.

THE COUNTESS BETRAYED.

Heroic efforts of the Countess to save her husband's Hfe — Northumberland landed at Dunbar and executed at York — Widespread indignation at his death. - - - pp. 1 15-127

CHAPTER IX.

EXTENSIVE RIEVING.

Great claims for plunder on both sides of the Border — The

Grahams accused as chief offenders. - - - pp. 128-136

CHAPTER X.

BUCCLEUCH AND KINMONT WILLIE.

Rescue of Kinmont from Carlisle Castle — Angry correspondence between Elizabeth and James — Lord Scrope invades Liddesdale — Barbarous treatment of Women and Children. - pp. 137-149

CHAPTER XL

EMBARRASSMENT OF KING JAMES.

Buccleuch imprisoned in Blackness Castle — Surrenders to Queen Elizabeth — Carey's terror of his Prisoner — Buccleuch pardoned — His memorable reception by Queen Elizabeth. - pp. 150-157 xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII.

ACCESSION OF KING JAMES.

The Grahams — Their Settlement in Cumberland — Union of the Kingdoms — Enthusiastic Reception of King James in England — His extraordinary Vanity — Belief in his own Wisdom — Belief in Witchcraft — The impecunious Scottish Nobility — Bestowal of Titles and Rewards. pp. 158-175

CHAPTER XIII.

THE KING'S PASSION FOR FAVOURITES.

His Desire for complete Incorporation opposed in both Countries — The Favourites Somerset and Buckingham — Plain Speaking on the Part of Foreign Ambassadors. pp. 176-187

CHAPTER XIV.

THE EARL OF CUMBERLAND.

Lord Cumberland English Warden of the Western Marches — His Favour with the King — Denunciation of the Grahams — Moral and Social Condition of the Cumbrian Gentry in 1605 — Odious Criminals sheltered by the Authorities — Disturbances of the "111 Week" — The Lands of the Grahams confiscated and conferred as a Free Grant upon Lord Cumberland. ----- pp. 188-200

CHAPTER XV.

COMMISSION APPOINTED.

Commissioners for the Pacification of the Border — All local Men selected — Sir Wilfred Lawson — One hundred and forty-nine

CONTENTS XV

Grahams summoned and imprisoned in Carlisle Castle — Transported to Holland — Charges against Hutchin Graham — Efforts in Favour of the Grahams — Hollows and Netherby garrisoned — Division of Opinion between Scottish and English Commissioners.

CHAPTER XVI.

PROGRESS OF THE CRUSADE. /

Petition of the banished Grahams — Their Escape from Holland —

Twenty-four of them rejoin their Families in Eskdale — Resentment of King James — Indiscriminate Executions — Sir William Cranston's unwillingness to act against the Grahams — His excellent Services on the Border — Cumbrian Criminals employed as Agents by Lord Cumberland — Increasing Hostility between Scottish and English Commissioners regarding Malefactors. - - - pp. 221-236

CHAPTER XVII.

BORDERERS SUSPECTED OF TREASON.

The Gunpowder Plot — Lord Northumberland and Sir Wilfred Lawson in Danger — Rigour of the Penal Laws against Catholics — Alarm of Sir Wilfred Lawson — His Protestations of Loyalty accepted — Northumberland condemned. - - - pp. 237-247

CHAPTER XVIIL

THE BISHOP OF CARLISLE.

The Bishop of Carlisle added to the Commission — Death of Lord Cumberland — Absurd Claims of his Successor —Captain of Bewcastle secretly aids the Armstrongs in their Raids — Great Severities in Eskdale — Signs of public Resentment — I"ung reproves the Commissioners for their Cruelty — Curious Petition from Walter Graham xvi CONTENTS

of Netherby — Proceedings against Hutchin Graham for the rescue of Kinmont Willie — Murder of Barngleese for Plunder by John Musgrave — He is excused by the Bishop of Carlisle. - pp. 248-271

CHAPTER XIX.

THE BOGS OF ROSCOMMON.

Continued Persecutions in Eskdale — Appointment of Lord Dunbar — Frequency of Capital Punishment — Banishment of the Grahams to Ireland — Sir Ralph Sadler — Starvation in the Bogs of Roscommon.

CHAPTER XX.

FINAL PACIFICATION OF THE BORDER.

Return of the Grahams from Ireland — Embarrassment of the Government — Arrival of Buccleuch from the Belgic Wars — He is entrusted with ample Powers for the Pacification of the Border. pp. 293-307

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

GiLNOCKiE Tower and Hollows Bridge, - - Frontispiece

The Esk, near Langholm, ------- 26

Hermitage Castle, ........ ^o

Gilnockie Tower, -.-.---.- 54

Memorial Stone Erected to John Armstrong of Gilnockie, ---------- 62

Penton Bridge, Liddesdale, .--... 88

Ferniehurst Castle : The Tower, - . - . _ 98

Linlithgow Palace, -------- 108

Harden, Stronghold of Walter Scott, - - - - 142

Carlisle Castle, --------- 148

Muncaster Castle, -------- 200

Hollows Bridge, Canonbie, 217

South or Main Entrance of Carlisle Castle and

Naworth Castle, --------- 256

Branxholm Tower, Stronghold of Buccleuch, - - 300

Chapter I. Origin Of The Raider

The position which the native of the Borderland occupied was, probably, unique in history. It was his destiny to be a dweller on that extremely short land frontier between two ever-hostile kingdoms. His family, his home, and all his belongings were ever within the zone of military operations, where there was little respite from the clash of arms, and where his good sword was the only guarantee for his life and his property.

In the long but unsuccessful struggles during the time of the Edwards — notably Edward I., called the Hammer of Scotland — to reduce the Scots to a state of vassalage, the Borderland was sorely smitten, for there fell the first shock of the English invasion, reducing the inhabitants at times to ruin and misery. Frequently, without the least warning, the invader broke in and swept the land like a tempest ; whole families were massacred, and their lands laid waste, as if by a bolt from the blue. In those days news travelled slowly. There were none of those preliminary warnings by electric agency of strained relations or ultimatums to which we are accustomed in modern times. Fearful as were those invasions, however, they never succeeded in completely crushing the irregular border warrior, who, for so many long years, checked their progress northward.

Every blow from England was returned with interest, and there were times when both sides of the Border lay in ashes for miles north and south. The English invader had not only to reckon with men of dauntless valour and great powers of endurance, but with men whose recuperative powers and cunning tricks of ambush made them equally dangerous and perplexing. The heaviest reverses might scatter and reduce, but could never quite crush the Border clansmen. Defeat only drove them back to the shelter of their hinterlands among the ravines of Tarras or the upper reaches of Liddesdale, there to gather up their strength to repair their losses, and to mature their plans of retaliation upon the foe.

At times when the enemy, feeling confident of his conquest, would be tempted to relax his vigilance on the march, he would find himself suddenly ambushed. A wild torrent of Armstrongs and Elliots, whom he had apparently just defeated, would swoop down upon him like a hurricane, driving his dismayed and broken forces far beyond the Esk or the Eden.

Again and again the assaults of England were checked and repulsed by the clansmen of the Border, whose loyalty and patriotism, in defending their native land, were altogether forgotten when, in after years, their descendants were so cruelly crushed when their services were no longer needed.

We must go a long way back for the origin of that deadly hatred which existed between the two countries for ages. It probably had its root in the savage invasions of Edward in the earlier years of the fourteenth century in his rude attempt to conquer Scotland. Had a friendly union of the two kingdoms been possible in those early days, all the political conditions of Europe might have been modified thereby. The splendid energies of the British race would not have been crushed and neutralised by internal disorders. The British Isles would have been able to offer united action against foreign enemies, and, as the kingdom would have been saved from ages of feuds and bloodshed, it is likely that the Border raider would never have been called into existence.

The savage policy of Edward, however, rendered union impossible, as he made no attempt to gain the goodwill of the Scots, but rather treated them as vermin fit only for slavery or extermination. In pursuance of his barbarous policy he fell upon the Border without provocation and without warning, capturing Berwick under circumstances of such atrocity as could never be forgotten, and which laid the foundation for centuries of international ill-will. The destruction of this chief Border town is described by Tytler as follows :

" All the horrors of a rich and populous city, sacked by an inflamed soldiery and a commander thirsting for vengeance now succeeded. Seventeen thousand persons, without distinction of age or sex, were put to the sword, and for two days the city ran with blood like a river. The churches, to which the miserable inhabitants fled for sanctuary, were violated and defiled with blood, spoiled of their ornaments, and turned into stables for English cavalry."

Little wonder that Scotland was staggered at

AT THE UNION S

this wholesale butchery of the inhabitants of her most important mercantile city, whose only crime was their refusal to open their gates on the imperious summons of the invader ; and still less wonder that, from this fatal day arose that unquenchable hatred which blazed between England and Scotland through so many generations. On the fall of Berwick a cry for vengeance rang throughout the land, uniting all the Border tribes for the invasion of England. An army of considerable force was organised, and under the command of the Earls of Ross, Monteith, and AthoU overran Northumberland. Redesdale and Tynedale were laid waste ; the monasteries of Lanercost and Hexham were given to the flames, and the country, far and wide, swept of all its cattle and movables.

Edward retaliated by advancing against Dunbar with an army so large that any resistance the Scotch could offer was too feeble to prevent his seizure of the castles of Edinburgh and Perth. So overwhelming indeed was his military strength, and so rapid his movements, that the Scotch nobility were easily overthrown and terrorized, many of them, including Baliol, making their submission, even going so far as to renounce their allegiance to their own country, and swearing fealty to the oppressor. The victorious Edward then marched in triumph to Aberdeen and Elgin without resistance, in the comfortable assurance that the obstinate Scot was finally subdued. His triumph, however, was doomed to be of short duration, for there now appeared upon the scene the two doughty champions, Robert Bruce and William Wallace, who, by almost incredible prowess, were able completely to reverse the deplorable conditions under which their country groaned, and, by the crowning victory of Bannockburn, gave the coup de grace to the ambitious designs of the English king. This memorable battle, unfortunately, led to no very lengthened cessation of hostilities.

Innumerable forays began to cross the Border to plunder and torment the enemy in every way, until raiding gradually developed into organised Border warfare. The game of plunder and reprisal became the chief occupation of the male inhabitants on both sides of the Border. Hatred of the English was almost the religion of the Border Scot, and to slaughter and spoil him of his belongings became the raider's highest conception of patriotism.

The leading spirit on the Scottish border at this stormy period was Scott of Buccleuch. He it was who might be called, if not the founder, at least the earliest organiser of raiding as a regular occupation, and under his banner the northern counties of England were made to pay dearly for the Sack of Berwick and other foul deeds of King Edward. Nor can Buccleuch be blamed for utilising the only materials and adopting the only methods available to avenge the wrongs inflicted upon his country. He joined with the leading lords and chieftains in a permanent alliance for the defence of the Border which, in time, grew to such formidable proportions as to create that extraordinary irnpermm in imperio which so often set the authority of the Crown at defiance.

Within their own domains these chiefs lived and ruled like independent sovereigns, the only effective soldiers in the realm being those absolutely under their command. Any law of which they disapproved they ignored or set at defiance, fearing neither God nor Devil, and obeying the government only so far as it suited their own advantage. In spite of all this independence they were, however, loyal and patriotic. The typical chief or leader was a personage proud of his pedigree and knightly in his bearing, knowing how to conduct himself on occasion with all the dignity and chivalry of a gentleman of honour, and these lofty airs were understood and admired even among the meanest of his retainers. Though the evil conditions under which they lived could not fail to be productive of many untameable spirits, wild beyond the reach of any civilising agency, still the clans as a whole were not without germs of respectability. In spite of their occupation as reivers they held in abhorrence many of the usual vices of the common criminal; for example, although the heinous crime of fire raising was not even a punishable offence, yet perjury or treachery incurred the penalty of death, and nothing was more remarkable than the raiders' scrupulous fidelity and trust in the pledged word.

Sir Ralph Sadler says " their word was true as steel, and though they would plunder without compunction, yet would they never betray any man who had trusted in them for all the gold in France or Scotland."

Unfortunately, as we shall see further on, there were occasionally serious violations of this excellent characteristic, but when any member of a clan was found guilty of the offence of breaking his pledge the punishment was stern and merciless.

On such occasions the injured party usually appeared at the meeting of the Warden's Court or any other large assemblage of the people with the glove of the accused fixed upon the point of a long lance. This was considered the greatest insult to the whole clan, who, on being satisfied of the culprit's guilt, put him to death so as to clear away the stain of baseness from their name.

The raider was usually well mounted and armed with lance and spear, a steel cap upon his head, a jack slung over his shoulder, and a pistol at his belt.

" The Scots are a bold and hardy race," says Froissart, " and much inured to war ; when they make their invasions into England they march as much as twenty four leagues by night and day without a halt. The Knights and Squires are mounted on large bay horses, the common people on little Galloways. They bring no carriages with them on account of the mountains they have to pass in Northumberland, neither do they carry with them any provisions of bread or wine, for their habits of sobriety are such in time of war, that they will live a long time on flesh half sodden, without bread, and they drink the river water without wine. They have therefore no occasion for pots and pans, for they dress the flesh of their cattle in the skins after they have taken them off, and, being sure to find plenty of them in the country which they invade, they carry none with them ; under the flaps of his saddle each man carries a broad plate of metal, behind the saddle a little bag of oat meal."

Those leaders were held in the highest estimation whose accurate knowledge of locality enabled them to guide their horsemen safely through the bewildering wastes and moss hags which abounded along the Border, on those dark and misty nights which were usually deemed the fittest for the intended foray.

They usually sallied forth at the dead of night in companies of forty or fifty, stealing quietly away almost without a sound, or a word above a whisper, wending their way by lonely paths known only to themselves and concealing themselves by day in some sheltered hollow or ravine, where their horses could feed unseen. When night closed in they again resumed their stealthy pace, rarely making their attack in open day. If their enemy chanced to be on the watch or had timely warning of the reivers' approach a fierce combat ensued, the leaders boldly singling each other out for a beard to beard encounter.

AT THE UNION ii

If, on the other hand, the enemy had the misfortune to be caught napping probably all his cattle would be driven forth and the darkness of night turned into day by the blaze of his burning homestead before he had well recovered from his surprise.

All the great families on both sides of the border, Scotts, Elliots, Grahams, Armstrongs, Johnstons, Maxwells, Forsters, Fenwicks, Musgraves and many others were skilled experts in the great game, but this in no way disqualified them from holding office under the crown as Wardens and Magistrates even after their offences had become notorious.

Under such extraordinary circumstances there need be little surprise that cattle stealing ceased to be considered a crime, or even discreditable in the eyes of the inhabitants. Besides, cattle were captured and recaptured with such frequency, and the herds were so mixed and confused, that all trace of original ownership was lost.

If a father or a son were hanged for the offence of cattle lifting, it brought no more stain upon the family than if he had accidentally perished in a snow-storm. It was merely looked upon as an unlucky casualty in the battle of life, and was not infrequently associated with some circumstance of exceptional daring, which greatlyaugmented the prestige of the surviving kindred. It will readily be seen, then, that the Border raider of the sixteenth century was entirely unlike any other marauder to be found in either England or Scotland, for, in addition to his raiding occupation, he was also a kind of guerilla warrior, guarding the only land frontier at no cost to the crown, and, although not officially recognised as a military force, the government had good reason to be thankful for his services on many a fateful field. So long as his loyalty and patriotism were beyond suspicion, the crown willingly condoned his contempt of law and order, and never bestowed a thought upon the improvement of his moral and economic condition.

Chapter II. Primitive Courts Of Justice

In the absence of settled laws, disorders, at times, became so rampant on the Border as to compel the government to send punitive expeditions to enforce obedience, especially among the wild Armstrongs of Liddesdale. But these efforts were usually so intermittent and ineffective as to produce greater disorders than those the government tried to cure. Frequently numbers were hanged for deeds done by the order of their lord, while he continued in full enjoyment of the royal favour, with head erect and conduct unchallenged. Such expeditions were never regarded by the people as an assize for the punishment of the guilty and the protection of the innocent ; on the contrary, their coming struck the whole community with terror, for all past experience had taught the * people that government invasions — ostensibly for the redress of wrongs — were really raids upon a large scale, where booty was the first consideration. The fact of the possession of a large herd of cattle or other movable stock, instead of being taken as an evidence of prosperity and good citizenship, was enough, without further enquiry, to seal the doom of the owner. Meanwhile the real transgressors, the freebooters and outlaws, easily escaped to the hills on the first sound of alarm, where they remained unmolested, as the military had no desire to run the risk of an ambush among the rocks and ravines of Upper Liddesdale. The most notable of these punitive invasions were those under the command of Douglas, Earl of Angus. The earliest, in 1525, was directed against the Armstrongs, especially the notorious house of Whitehaugh, when Sim Armstrong and twelve of his kindred were captured, along with 600 cattle, 3000 sheep, and 500 goats. The prisoners were carried to Edinburgh, where they were long detained, but ultimately released on giving security for their good behaviour.

The second was in July, 1526, but historians differ as to the success of this expedition ; some affirm that Angus was obliged to retire from Jedburgh after three days, and others state that a considerable number of freebooters were apprehended and executed.

The third expedition was in the spring of 1527, when Angus succeeded in penetrating into Liddesdale, where he killed seventeen, hanged twelve, and carried many others to Edinburgh to be executed.

The fourth was in June following, when most of the Armstrongs submitted, giving hostages for their good behaviour.

The fifth was early in the year 1528, but having failed to induce the Kers of Ferniehurst to co-operate with him, Angus was forced to retire.

The sixth occurred shortly after, when he again marched to Jedburgh, but there is no reliable record as to the success attending this last effort.^

The natural result of these indiscriminate raids was to drive the plundered inhabitants who were fortunate enough to escape with their lives, into the ranks of the outlaws.

Increased disorders, disease, and famine followed in the wake of all the Angus invasions ; for his barbarous policy was, as he frequently declared, to starve the outlaws into submission by depriving the whole community of the means of subsistence.

^ Armstrong's Liddesdale, p. 253.

As might have been supposed, when food became scarce within the raided district the outlaws extended their operations far into both England and Scotland, spreading the evil over districts hitherto beyond the wave of their activities.

The most notable feature of the rule among the clans was the system of blackmail, or protection money, paid to the superior lord or chief In modern times we attach a widely different meaning to the term than did our Border ancestors. Blackmail nowadays has come to mean the base attempt to extort money b}^ threats of injury to the character or violence to the person, but in ancient times it only meant payment of rent, or fees in kind, such payments being called black rent or mail in contra-distinction to payment in coin, which was called white rent. This blackmail was paid as willingly and punctually as the ordinary payment of the rent of a farm, for it was by this system that a man's life and property were reasonably well ensured. The chief who received this tribute bound himself not only to refrain from plundering the contributor, but he also undertook to protect him from all others ; moreover, he was pledged to recover and restore to him all the cattle or other goods carried off in the raids.