The history of Christianity

Front matter

CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

3 1924 092 346 174

The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library.

CHAPTER I. From the Council op Nice to the Council or Chalcedon, (325-451.)

ScTMMABY — Erection of Churclies — Recall of the Eusebians — Deposition of Eustathius — Trial of Athanasius — Council of Tyre — Athanasius at Treves — Marcellus of A.noyra — Death of Arius — Baptism and Death of Constantine — Return of Athanasius — Constantius favourable to the Eusebians — Council of Antioch, called of the Dedication — Athanasius at Rome — Councils of Sardis and of Philopopolis — Athanasius Restored — Photinus of Sirmium — Council of Milan — Athanasius in Flight — Council of Sirmium — Councils of Rimini and Seleucia — Semi-Arians Persecuted — Pure Arians — Macedonians or Pneumatomachs — Julian, Emperor — Restoration of Hellenism — Reappearance of Athanasius — Fresh Expulsion — Death of Julian — Return of Athanasius — Valentinian and Valens Emperors — Basil of Cesarea — Philosophers Persecuted — Ambrosius of Milan — ApoUinaris — Theodosius Emperor — CEcumenical Council of Constantinople — Laws against Dissidents and Idolaters — Priscillianists in Spain — Maximian Emperor — Jovinian, Bonosus, The CoUyridians — Massacre of Thessalonica — Destruction of the Pagan Temples — Valentinian II. — Eugenius — Death of Theodosius — Pagano-Christian Fusion — Augustin Opposed to Manicheans and the Donatists — Origenists Persecuted — John Chrysostom at Constantinople, his Exile, and Deatli

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— The Pelagians and Semi- Pelagians — Invasion of the Barbarians — Capture and Sack of Rome — The Jews Driven from Alexandria — Murder of Hypatia — The Vandals in Africa — Nestorius — CEcumenical Council of Ephesus — Eutyches — Council of Ephesus, called the Robber Council — CEcumenical Council of Chalcedon — Canon Kejected by the Bishop of Kome — Capital Punishments against Idolatry — Progress of Christianity — Government of the Church — Ecclesiastical Orders — Monkism — Discipline^Doctrine — ISlew Beliefs : Invocation of Saints ; Images ; Eelics ; Pilgrimages — New Bites : Assemblies, Solemn Festivals, Fasts, Baptism, Limbo of Infants, Eucharist — Agapae Suppressed — Celibacy — Divers Superstitions

CHAPTER IT.

From the Council op Chalcedon to the Schism of Photius. (451-891.) SuMMAJiY — Reaction against the Council of Chalcedon — Timothy Elurus— Peter the Fuller— The Heuoticon of Zeno — Justinian Proscribes Hellenism and Dissent — Neopfatonism at Athens — Closing of the Schools of Philosophy — The Eutychians and James Baraeus— The Barbarians in the West — Attila — Fall of the Western Empire — Odoacer — Theodoric — The Goths — The Franks — The Anglo-Saxons — The Vandals — Belisarius — Narses — The Origenists — The Three Chapters — Vigilius at Constantinople — (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (the Second) — The Incorrupticoles — Disasters in the East — The Lombards in Italy — Precarious Situation of the Popes of Rome — Monotheism — The Eothesis of Heraolius — The Type of Constans — Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (the Third) — The Quini-Sextus — The Suevi — The Visigoths and the Burgundians abjure Ai^anism — The Church of the Pranks — Invasion of Provence, of Burgundy, of Aquitania— Charles Martel — The Abassides — Conversion of the Belgians, of the Anglo-Saxons of the Saxons and other Germans— Mohamed and Islamism — Abubeker — Omar— Othman — Ali — TheOmmiades

The Moslems in Persia, in Syria, in Palestine, in Egypt, in Africa, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Septimania— Worship of Images — Leo the Isaurian — Constantino Copronymus — Council of Iconoclasts — Irene CEcurONTHNTS. VU

menical Council of Nice (the Second) — Opposition of the Franks — Charlemagne — Michael the Stammerer- Theophilus — Theodora — The New Manicheans or Paulicians — Kalifs of Bagdad — Almamon — Courses of the Saracens in Italy — Martyrs of Cordova — Felix of Urgel — Gothescalk — The Heal Presence — Commencements of the Greco-Latin Schism — Procession of the Holy Spirit — Conversion of the Bulgarians — Encyclic of Photius — His Deposition — Qilcumenical Council of Constantinople according to the Latins (the Fourth) — Photius Restored — (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople according to the Greeks (the Fourth)— End of Photius— His Spirit Remains Behind — Domination of the Popes in the West — Ignorance, Paches, and Corruption of the Latin Clergy — Monkism — Benedictines — The Descent of Jesus to HeU — State of Souls — Superstitions — Mary — Peter — Purgatory — New Festivals — New Kites . . . 95

Chapter III

Apogeyphal Books, Fables, and Lesends. SoMMAftY — Divers Apocryphal Writings — Lives of Saints — Creed of Athanasiua — False Decretals — Dionysius the Areopagite — Saint Mary's Resurrection — Legend of the Assumption — John — Peter and Paul — Fables — Discoveries and Transferences of Relics — The True Cross — The Body of Stephen — The Head of John the Baptist — Mark at Venice — James at ComposteUa — Ceaseless Miracles . . .190

§ jjoli the '(Ehirb.

THE CHURCH OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

CHAPTER I. Fkom the Schism of Photius to the End oe the Crusades. (891-1291.)

Summary — The Successors of Charles the Bald to the Empire — Dependence of the Popes — Their Bad Characters — Theodora and her Two Daughters— The Othos— Cresceutius— Sylvester II.— The Approaching End of the World — Conversion of the Hungarians — Henry the Third (the

Contents

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Black)— Leo the IX. — Berenger — The Normans in Italy — Greco-Latin Schism — Michael Cenilarius — Hem'y IV. —Rules for the Election of the Popes — Gregory VII. — Celibacy of the Clergy — Investitures — Struggle of the Priesthood and the Empire — The Coimtess Matilda — Abjection of Henry IV.— Eodolph of Suabia— Henry Vanquished, Excommunicated, and Deposed — The Anti- Pope Guibert — Pretensions of Gregory VII. — Dictatus Papae— Death of Gregory VII.— Urban II.— Revolt of Conrad — The Crusades — The Saracens Driven from Sicily —Capture of Toledo— The Cid— Eatimite Kalifs— Seldjukides Turks — Capture of Jerusalem— Revolt of the Young Henry — Death of Henry IV. — William the Red — Disagreements of Henry V. wdth the See of Rome — Agreement on Investitures — First General Council of the Lateran (the Ninth OEcumenical of the Latins) — Innocent II. andAnacletus — Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux — Second General Council of the Lateran (Tenth) — Arnold of Brescia — Abelard — Gilbert de la Poree — Conrad — Louis the Younger — Frederick Barbarossa — Alexander III. — Thomas a Becket — Third General CouncU of the Lateran (Eleventh) — Election of Popes — Saladin — Philip Augustus — Richard Coeur de Lion — Innocent III. — Philip of Suabia and Otto of Saxony — John Lackland — Latin Empire of Constantinople — Manioheans — Peter de Bruya — Henry — Vaudois — Crusades against the Albigenses — • Fourth General Council of Lateran (Twelfth) — Begging Monks — Inquisition — Frederick II. — War of the Pope and the Emperor — First General Council of Lyons (Thirteenth) — Louis IX.— The Tartars — Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily — Conradin — Death of Louis IX. — Second General Coimcil of Lyons (Fourteenth) — Reunion of the Greeks — Conclave — Begging Monks — Rodolph of Hapsburg — Sicilian Vespers — Loss of Palestine — End of the Crusades ... . 219

I0ijk 1^4 SetflEir.

II. Chapter I

FROM THE COUNCIL OF NICE TO THE COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON.

(325-451.)

Summary : — Erection of Cliurches — Recall of the Eusebians — Deposition of Bustathius — Trial of Athanasius — Council of Tyre— Athanasius at Treves — Marcellus of Ancyra — Death of Arius — Baptism and Death of Constantino — Return of Athanasius — Constantius favourable to the Eusebians — Council of Antioch, called of the Dedication— Athanasius in Rome — Councils of Sardis and Philippopohs — Athanasius restored — Photinus of Sirmium — Council of Milan — Athanasius in flight — Council of Sirmium — Councils of Rimini and Seleucia — Semi- Arians persecuted — Pure Arians — Macedonians or Pneumatomachs — Julian Emperor — Restoration of Hellenism — Reappearance of Athanasius — Fresh Expulsion — Death of Julian — Return of Athanasius — Valentinian and Valens emperors — Basil of Cesarea — Philosophers persecuted — Ambrosius of Milan — Apollinaris — Theodosius emperor — (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople — Laws against Dissidents and Idolaters — Priscillianists in Spain — Maximian Emperor — Jovinian, Bonosus, the Collyridians — Massacre of Thessalonica — Destruction of the Pagan Temples — Valentinian II. — Eugenius — Death of Theodosius — Pagans — Christian Fusion — Augustin opposed to the Manicheans and the Donatists— Origenists Persecuted— John Chrysostom at Constantinople ; his Exile and Death— The Pelagians and Semi- Pelagians — Incursion of the Barbarians — Capture and Sack of Rome — The Jews driven from Alexandria — Murder of Hypatia — The Vandals in Africa — Nestorius — (Ecumenical Council of Ephesus — Eutyches — Council of Ephesus, called the Robber Council — (Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon — Canon rejected by the Bishop of Rome — Capital Punishment against Idolatry — Progress of Christianity — Government of the Church — Ecclesiastical Orders — Monkism — Discipline — Doctrines — New Beliefs; Invocation of Saints; Images; Relics; Pilgiimages — New Rites ; Assemblies ; Solemn Festivals ; Fasts ; Limbo of Infants ; Eucharist — Agapse suppressed — Celibacy — Divers Superstitions.

In the foregoing Book we have seen the twelve apostles announce the gospel to the Jews of Palestine, and Paul, breaking off from the Hebrew tradition, lay among the Gentiles the foundation of a church open to all men; we have seen introduced into that church, in the following generations, dogmas borrowed from the oriental religions and the

Greek philosophy ; institutions having their orisrin in India, rites or usages imitated from the Hellenic mysteries. We have spoken of the earliest debates occasioned by Christotheism and the divine triplicity which takes the place of the unity of the God of Israel. But the Council of Nice •was far from putting an end to the disputations. The empire will be long agitated by the enigmas of the trinity and the twofold nature of Jesus, enigmas which will be finally settled by the authority of the prince rather than solved by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

Meanwhile Constantino does not cease to bestow his favours on the Christian religion, of which he calls himself the external bishop. The holy sepulchre had been long buried under a heap of ruins covered by a temple consecrated to Venus. The emperor demolished the profane image and levelled the whole spot. " There," says Eusebius, " there offers itself to the eye that sepulchre which may be veritably called the Holy of Holies " (the historian does not report by what signs its existence was ascertained). A church is built on the ground with a thoroughly i-egal munificence.

The aged Helena, the emperor's mother, proceeds to Palestine, where she builds two churches, one at Bethlehem, near the cavern where .Tesus was said to have been born ; the other on the Mount of Olives in memory of the ascension. Christian temples equally rise in the principal cities of the empire ; all of them are liberally endowed by Constantino.

He goes to Eome to celebrate the twentieth year of his reign (326). It is his last journey to that city. His predilection for the new religion had rendered him odious in the eyes of the Roman people and Senate, of which a very large majority 'was still addicted to idolatry ; they were profuse in words injurious to his person. Then Constantine forms the resolution of founding on the shores of the Bosphorus a new city, which will become the rival of the ancient capital of the empire (330). Already Diocletian and Galerius, by their residence in Nicomedia, had in some sort transferred the seat of Government into those regions • there they were near at hand to resist the attempts of the barbarians on the Danube and on the Euphrates. The spot where stood ancient Byzantium is chosen by Constantine for the city which was to bear his name and that of New Rome. Tlae worship of idols is interdicted there. Statues of brass are taken from the provinces to ornament the profane places of the new city ; in the public squares, in the circus, in the imperial palace, may be seen the statue of Pythian Apollo, those of the Muses of the Helicon ; the tripods of Delphi, Pan dedicated after the war of the Medes. The emperor at the same time applies himself to destroy the superstitions of the Gentiles. The vestibules of divers temples are despoiled ; their gates are carried away and the edifice laid bare. The idols, brought forth from their privacy, are given up to the public gaze and stript of their ornaments ; they are dashed to pieces or burned in the presence of the crowd. At Aphachus a temple of Venus is destroyed, in Cilicia a temple in honour of ^Esculapius. The measure of the Nile which was formerly kept in the temple of Serapis was carried into the Church of Alexandria. Most of these facts, however, date only from the last years of Constantine and take place only in the Greek and oriental regions where the Christians exist in great number. Nothing of the kind is presented in the provinces of the west.

The example of the emperor contributes greatly to the increase of the numbers of the disciples of Jesus ; but a.i yet no law restricts the liberty of the ancient religion. The worship of the Jews, pure of idolatry, also experiences the imperial good will. The patriarchs and the elders, who are at the head of the synagogues, are exempted from all personal and civil charges (330). Constantine endeavours to reduce the different sects of Christianity to unity. We have said what he did for the Donatists. The governors of the provinces receive orders to dissipate and destroy the other dissidents. A communication is addressed to the Novatians, the Valentinians, the Marcionites, the Paulianists, and the Cataphrygians, to exhort them to conform to the official worship. They are informed that their meetingb THE HISTORY OF OHBISTIANITy

houses will be interdicted, their oratories given up to the Imperial Church, their other edifices publicly sold ; they are besides forbidden to assemble anywhere else. The Arians are not yet considered as dissidents ; they continue to communicate with the consubstantialists. Botli in the eyes of the emperor are members of the universal church. There is even reason to think that the constitution of which we have just spoken, was drawn up under the inspiration of the Eusebians, then restored to favour.

Constantine appesirs always to have preserved in this regard the opinion which he expressed in his letter to Alexander and Arius. The theories for or against consubstantionalism appeared to liim not matters of faith, but philosophical speculations and sophistical subtleties. If, in the Council of Nice, he acted powerfully for the Athanasians, he did so on account of his dissatisfaction with Eusebius of Niconiedia. When once his decision was taken he resolved to cause every one to accept it. A decree to that effect was issued with his concurrence. Resistance seemed to him rebellion. But the futility attaching to the question inclined him to welcome acts of submission without insisting on the form or the terms. This disposition of the emperor was profited by in order to obtain the recall of the exiles. The Eusebians had numerous friends at Court. Arius returned the first (328). In the profession of faith which he sent he declai-es that he believes in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as is taught by the Scriptures and the universal church, and in that he says nothing new, but he carefully avoids stating that the son is consubstantial and begotten from all eternity, as was maintained by his adversaries. Nevertheless, the emperor is contented with the declaration, and limits himself to not yet permitting him to live in Alexandria, for fear lest his presence should excite fresh troubles. Some time after, Eusebius and Theognis, after having given the appearance of an adhesion, are also recalled from exile, and re-established in their sees. Eusebius, who recovers the favour of the prince, ceaselessly strives to ruin the credit of his antagonists, while feigning to be submissive to the official doctrine. From thence

Constantine seems to Lave acted under the direction of the Eusebians. Without searching for the intimate thought of each, he requires of all a spirit of toleration, and shows himself inflexible toward whosoever works favourably for discord or sedition. By ably playing this game they succeed in making him unfavourable to the consubstantialists.

The Eusebians first direct their attacks on Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch. He was one of the most ardent contradictors of the doctrine of Arius. He had vigorously used his influence against Patrophilus of Scythopolis, Paulinus of Tyre, Eusebius of Cesarea, and others. He accused Eusebius of Cesarea of not holding the consubstantial doctrine. He, on his side, charged Eustathius with professing the dogma of Sabellius ; this was the charge that was ordinarily made against consubstantialists, and it was not easy to reply to it. A grave sedition having sprung up in Antioch, Eustathius, on whom rested heavy suspicions, is banished into Thrace or Illyrium, and remains an exile until his decease. In his place they elect Eulalius, who does not rule long, then Eusebius, who refuses, then Euphronius, who dies the following year, and finally Flaoulus. These different bishops were all Eusebians ; but a portion of the people and of the clergy, attached to the cause of Eustathius, separates from their communion. There results a local schism which is prolonged to the end of the fourth century. The Eusebians also depose and banish Asclepas, Bishop of Gaza, and Eutropius, Bishop of Adrianople. This party dominates over all the East, Egypt excepted. Athanasius, then Bishop of Alexandria, was a young man, eloquent, zealous, full of knowledge, and of an inflexible character. A simple deacon at the time of the Council of Nice, he accompanied thither Alexander, his bishop, and showed himself the most able adversary of Arius. He may be regarded, if not as the ci-eator of consubstantialism, at least as its introducer into the Christian religion. During more than forty years he has defended it with the devoted - ness of a father, the skill of a subtle dialectician, and the obstinacy of a convinced sectary. The Eusebians, despairing of obtaining from him any concesBion, put themselves in open war with him. They skilfully work to his disadvantage the enmities which he drew on himself from the Meletians, whose schism still subsists, notwithstanding the decision of the Council of Kice, and the death of Meletius. Athanasius appears not to have employed in this affair all the conciliation desirable. The Meletians make loud complaints against him and the bishops of his way of thinking, imputing to him acts of violence, and even murders. The emperor had written on the matter to Athanasius, who, on his part, reproached the Meletianswith illegitimate promotions of priests, unsoundness of doctrine, and seditions against the orthodox.

The Meletians present to the emperor different complaints against Athanasius ; they accuse him of having levied tribute in Egypt, under pretext of purchasing linen coats for the priests of Alexandria, and of having sent the profit of the transaction to a certain Philumanes who aspired to the sovereign power. They at the same time denounce the priest Marcarius as culpable of breaking a sacred vase. Athanasius, ordered to Constantinople, justifies himself, and returns into Egypt with a letter from the emperor full of eulogy for the bishop and of blame for the Meletians.

The latter renewed their accusations, and first of all, that which concerns the sacred vase (333 A.D.). The circumstances that gave occasion to it are these. There existed, in a village of Mareotis, a certain Ischyras, who, ordained priest by CoUuthus, had been reduced to the condition of a layman by the Council of Alexandria, which was presided over by Osius. That man did not the less continue to usurp the sacerdotal functions in attempting to draw to himself the inhabitants of his village. Athanasius sent the priest Macarius to seek him out. Macarius, according to the version of the Athanasians, found Ischyras ill in his bed, and contented himself with enjoining on his father not to permit him to intrude again into the functions of the priesthood. The Meletians affirm, on the contrary, that Macarius, entering with violence while Ischyras was at the altar, broke the chalice, overturned the table, burned the sacred books, beat down the pulpit, and destroyed the Church to its foundations.

To this accusation they add another against the bishop of Alexandria. Arsenius, a Meletian bishop of Ilipsala in the Thebaid, had secretly retired into a monastery, under the influence of the enemies of Athanasius, according to some, in order to avoid bad treatment, according to others. This suddeu disappearance excited suspicion of a murder. The Meletians charge Athanasius with it, who, they say, had cut off the right hand of Arsenius to make use of it in witchcraft. They carry into all places a withered hand, to excite the public indignation against him whom they accuse. The emperor convokes a council at Cesarea to take cognizance of the affair. But Athanasius, in justifying himself with him, succeeds in getting the assembly countermanded. The Bishop of Alexandria then enjoys tranquillity for some time, during which he applies himself to the task of maintaining and spreading his dogma of the consubstantial trinity. The opinion of the monks having great weight with the multitude, the Arians asserted that the celebrated Antony favoured their doctrine. On the invitation of Athanasius and other Egyptian bishops, Antony descends from his mountain and repairs to Alexandria, where he publicly speaks against the Arians, whom he treats as heretics and precursors of Anti-Christ. He is welcomed everywhere by great crowds. On his departure, he is conducted by a concourse of people ; the bishop accompanies him to the gates of the city.

Convinced that Egypt will escape from them as long as Athanasius governs the Church, the Eusebians, employing every resource, impel the Meletians to reproduce their anterior accusations. Constantine, fatigued with so many complaints, convokes a council at Tyre, for the purpose of deciding on all things and terminating the troubles. Count Dionysius represents the emperor in it. A military force is put at the disposal of the Eusebians. Athanasius brings with him forty-nine Egyptian bishops. An effort is made to reproduce before the assembly the deeds already imputed to the bishop of Alexandria, specially those of the breaking of the chalice and the murder of Arsenius ; but the accusations fail. Arsenius himself made his appearance and covered the enemies of Athanasius witli confusion. Proofs failing as to the breaking of the vase, a commission is charged to make inquiry in Mareotis ; six of the principal Eusebians compose it, namely Theognis, Maris, Theodore, Macedonius, Ursacius, and Valens. Athanasius seeing that everything is going on according to the wishes of his enemies, quits the city of Tyre to proceed to the emperor. Then the council draws up a decree which deposes him and forbids his entrance into Alexandria for fear he should excite troubles and tumults. By the same act, the Meletians are admitted to the communion, and each of them recovers his rank in the clergy. Letters are addressed to the emperor and to all the bishops to inform them of what has been resolved on, and to exhort them to have no more communication with Athanasius. While these things are going on, Constantino invites the council to betake itself to Jerusalem to dedicate the monument which he has had raised on Mount Calvary. The bishops repair thither, and the new temple is consecrated with the concurrence of the heads of all the churches and an innumerable multitude which had come together from different provinces. This dedication took iilaoe in honour of the thirtieth year of Constantine's reign, ten years after the council of Nice.

Arius and his partisans profit by the occasion to effect their restoration. Furnished with a letter from the emperor, they present themselves to the council by whom they are admitted without difficulty. Synodal letters make it known in all places that the Arians have been received into the bosom of the universal Church. Meanwhile Athanasius had carried his complaints before the emperor by entreating him to send for the bishops of Constantinople in order that he might justify himself in his presence. Constantino, who at first refused to hear him, at last yielded to his urgency. He writes to the bishops, and treating them as authors of trouble and suppressors of the truth, be enjoins on them to come promptly to defend their acts. Frightened at .suoli a message, the Eusebians are not eager to go together to Constantinople : at first only some of the principal betake themselves thither. When they are before the emperor, instead of speaking of the breaking; of the chalice or the death of Arsenius, they put forward a new accusation against Athanasius. He has, they say, threatened to prevent the transport of corn which is every year made from Alexandria to Constantinople. Athanasius, putting forward decided contradictions, maintains that such a thought could never have entered the head of a man poor and destitute of authority. Eusebius of Nicomedia declares that Athanasius is rich, powerful, and capable of everything. Constantine, flying into a passion, will listen to Athanasius no longer, and banishes him to Treves in Gaul.

Nevertheless, despite the decree of deposition passed at Tyre, he does not permit the election of another bishop of Alexandria, and by a kind of compensation he also banishes John, head of the Meletian party, although the council has admitted him to the communion of the church, and re-established him in his episcopal functions. In his exile, Athanasius is well received by Maximin, bishop of Treves, and honourably treated by Constantine the younger, who resides in the metropolis of northern Gaul. While the bisliops are united at Constantinople, a book by Maroellus of Ancyra, a partisan of Athanasius, is brought before them. The work has for its object to refute the author of a writing in favour of the Arians. Marcellus, in the ardour of discussion, had not been able to guard himself against an opinion which was heterodox in the eyes of all trinitarians. He, like Paul of Samosata, went so far as to declare that Christ was simply a man. Required to retract and to burn his book, he refuses, asserting doubtless, as he did afterwards, that his meaning was misunderstood. On this refusal he is deposed by the bishops who call Basil to the episcopate of Ancyra. From this decision the Eusebians drew a double profit ; they dealt a blow on a friend of Athanasius, and at the same time proved that they did not deny the deity of Christ, as they were reproached with doing by the Athanasians. After being received by the Council of Jerusalem, Arius went to Alexandria to be admitted into the Church of that city.

But the people had refused to communicate with him, and a sedition threatened to break out. Arius is recalled to Constantinople, where the emperor authorises liim to present himself to the Chtirch. Bishop Alexander resists, the Eusebians declare that the next day they -will conduct Arius to the temple, and compel his admission, despite opposition. In effect the next day Arius comes forth from the imperial palace escorted by the Eusebians, and directs his steps toward the church. But on the road he is suddenly taken ill and is forced to go aside to ease himself. There his bowels burst out with an effusion of blood, and soon he ceases to live. Such an end under such circumstances receives different interpretations ; some see in it an effect of divine punishment ; others speak of poison. The death of Arius changes nothing in the state of things. The people of Alexandria in vain demand the return of Athanasius ; in vain Antony writes several letters to the Emperor. Constantine imposes silence on the 41exandrines ; in his reply to the hermit, he puts forward the sentence of the Council, saying that if some of the judges might have yielded to hate or to favour, it is not credible that so great a number of bishops acted from such motives. Athanasius, he adds, is a proud spirit, dealer in discord. In 337 the emperor, being sick and feeling his end near, determines to ask for baptism. He is admitted as a catechist at Helenopolis, then repairing to the neighbourhood of Nicomedia, he there receives baptism in presence of the bishops, and partakes of what are called the sacred mysteries (of the Communion). He was baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia.

Then Constantine takes measures for transmitting the empire to his three sons, no one of whom is near his person. At each of the ten years of his thirty years' reign he had nominated them Csesars ; at the first, Constantine, the eldest of the three, was put at the head of the western provinces. At the second the oriental regions were decreed to Constantins. Constans, the youngest, was declared Csesar at the third deoennium. After the death of the aged emperor, his states are divided among them as his paternal heritage ; Constantine has Gaul, Spain, Brittany ; Constantius receives Italy, Africa, and Illyrium ; Constans guards the provinces of the east. Constantine left also a brother, Jules Constantius, and two nephews, Jules Dalmatius, and Claude

Hannibalian, children of a brother -who had died before him. Dalmatius had received from his uncle the title of Caesar, with Thrace, Macedonia, and Achaia ; Hannibalian, under the title of king, governed Armenia, Pontus, and Cappadocia. Shortly after Constantine's death these three princes are massacred by the soldiers on a secret order from Constantius as is presumed. Jules Constantius had two sons, Gallus and Julian, who was afterwards emperor. Both of them were spared, Gallus on account of his bad health, Julian by reason of his youth. The three emperors recall those who are in banishment. Athanasius leaves Treves, furnished with a letter from Oonstantine the younger for the people of Alexandria (338). He passes through Constantinople, finds Constantius at Csesarea in Cappadocia, and traverses Syria to make his way into Egypt. He is received by the Alexandrines with great joy ; his return had even been preceded by a reaction in which excesses were committed which are imputed to Athanasius. The Eusebians endeavour to prejudice Constantius against him, but without much success during the life of Constantine the younger ; Constantius does not wish to commit himself with his brother in connection with religious quarrels.