The international protection of labor

Front matter

a.'^^&sgawKSBsayaiiaaaissBi.'aaia'w

^1-

THE

Preface

In 1918 the writer published a Doctor's dissertation on the International Aspects of the Labor Problem, after collecting copies of international labor treaties and proposals for such treaties and translating those which had not already been translated into English. Although more or less had been published on the continent of Europe in French and German on the movement for international labor legislation, this subject had received little attention from American or English writers. In 1919 the writer sent to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics a report including the collection of copies of labor treaties and proposals for such treaties, which led to the publication by that Bureau in 1920 of Bulletin No. 268 (Miscellaneous Series), entitled, Historical Survey of International Action Affecting Labor.

Previous to the World War the United States was thought by many to be fully a generation behind Europe with respect to various phases of labor legislation. Certain it is that the United States was among the most backward of great nations in taking part officially in the international regulation of labor conditions. It is the purpose of this book to describe the movement for international labor legislation, to present the labor agreements that have resulted therefrom, and to endeavor to show the legislative developments that may enable the United States to do more than it has heretofore done towards treating labor problems in an international way.

The Introduction is topical and briefly outlines the four phases of international action which have affected labor and which have contributed to the movement for international labor legislation (see p. xv). It also contains a more detailed outline of the proceedings of the International Labor Organization of the League of Nations.

The Movement for International Labor Legislation in the chronological order of the events that contributed to it up to the time of the war, and in its relation to America and to the formation of the International Labor Organization of the League of Nations directly after the war, is discussed in Part I (see p. 1).

vii

PREFACE

International Labor Legislation, or, in other words, the polypartite and bipartite labor treaties that had been ratified and brought into actual operation as a result of the movement for international labor legislation, as well as the proposals made for such treaties, up to the time of the war, are treated in Part II (see p. 110) and in Appendices I (see p. 169) and II (see p. 233) . A table of contents for Appendix I is given on pp. 171, 172, and for Appendix II on pp. 235-237.

The Supplement (see p. 399) includes a copy of the Covenant of the International Labor Organization of the League of Nations as contained in the Peace Treaty of 1919, as well as copies of the recommendations and draft conventions adopted by the Conference of the International Labor Organization of the League of Nations at Washington in 1919 and at, Genoa in 1920.

The Bibliography (see p. 331) has a table of contents on pp. 332, 333, covering publications in German, French, English, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Hungarian, Danish, Dutch, and Finnish.

A Short Bibliography of most recent publications in English is given on pp. xv, xvi.

A Key to the abbreviations used in the citation of references in this book and particularly in the Bibliography, will be found on p. 334.

An Index to Parts I and II is contained on pp. 391-398.

A Concise Table of Contents for the entire book is given on p. ix.

Tables of congresses and treaties are given on pp. x-xii.

The writer wishes to express his appreciation of the readiness of Dr. John B. Andrews, Secretary of the American Association for Labor Legislation, to place source material at his disposal and of the helpful suggestions of Hon. John Bassett Moore, of the Chair of International Law, at Columbia University.

New York City, BOUTELLE ELLSWORTH LOWE.

Contents

Chapter Page

Preface _ vii

Introduction xv

PART I. The Movement for International Labor Legislation

I. The Movement Defined 3

II. Genesis of the Movement 11

III. International Labor Conferences 31

IV. Pro et Contra 66

V. The Relation of America 79

VI. The Movement in Perspective 96

PART XL

I. Conventions Signed at Bern 112

II. Protective Labor Treaties 137

Appendix 1 169

Labor Law Internationally Adopted — Contents 171

Appendix II 233

Labor Resolutions Internationally Subscribed — Contents..... 235 Index to Parts I and II 391

Contents 332

Key to Bibliography 334

Short Bibliography xiii

SUPPLEMENT

International Labor Organization of the League of Nations

Labor Section (Part XIII) of the Peace Treaty of 1919 401

Draft Conventions and Recommendations of the Conference of Washington, 1919 412

Draft Conventions and Recommendations of the Conference of Genoa, 1920 432

i-r Property of

MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD LIBRARY

N[W YORK STATE SOHOOL OF ilJOOSTRIAL km LABOR RELATIONS

rneli University

CONTENTS

TABLES OF CONGRESSES

International Congresses of Socialists (1864-1881)

International Workingmen's Association and the First International,^

1864 ^^'> 14

Congress of Geneva, 1866 j^

Congress of Lausanne, 1867 }^

Congress of Brussels, 1868 1°

Congress of Basel, 1869 J"

Congress of The Hague, 1872 1°

Congress of Geneva, 1873 |°

Congress of Brussels, 1874 j°

Congress of Bern, 1876 - Jo

Congresses of Verviers and Ghent, 1877 16

Congress of Chur, 1881 1°

Socialist and Labor Congresses (1883-1888)

Congress of Paris 1883 xvi, xxi, 16, 24

Congress of Paris, 1886 xvi, xxi, 16, 24

Congress of London, 1888 xvi, xxi, 16

International Congresses of Socialists (1889-1912, 1919, 1920)

Congress of Paris and the Second International, 1889 xvii, 16, 27

Congress of Brussels, 1891 xvii, 16, 34

Congress of Zurich, 1893 xvii, 16, 34

Congress of London, 1896 16, 34

Congress of Paris, 1900 16

Congress of Amsterdam, 1904 16

Congress of Stuttgart, 1907 xxii, 16

Congress of Copenhagen, 1910 16

Congress of Basel, 1912 xvii, 16

Congress of Bern, 1919 xix

Congress of Geneva, 1920 xx

War-Time Socialist Congresses

Congress of Copenhagen, 1915 (Neutral Powers) xviii

Congress of Vienna, I91S (Central Powers) xviii

Socialist and Labor Conferences of London, 191S, 1917, 1918 (Allies) xviii

Congress of Zimmerwald, 191S (International) xviii

Congress of Kienthal, 1916 (International) xviii

Congress of Stockholm, 1917 (International) xix

Congresses of the Third International

Congress of Moscow, 1919 xx

Congress of Moscow, 1920 xx

Miscellaneous

Congresses of Socialist Women, 1907, 1910 xviii

Congress of Socialist Students, 1919 xx

Pan-American Sociahst Congress, 1919 xx

X

CONTENTS

TABLES OF CONGRESSES— Conhnwed

International Congresses of Trade-Unions

The international trade-union movement xxi-xxv, 16, 17

Congresses of Paris, 1883 and 1886, and of London, 1888... xvi, xxi, 16, 21

Congress of Zurich, 1897 35, 247

Congresses of the International Federation of Trade Unions, 1901-

1919 xxii

Seventeenth Miners' International Congress, 1906 46

Congress of San Salvador, 1911 xxiv

Congress of Leeds, 1916 xxiii

Congress of Bern, 1917 xxiv

Congress of Laredo, 1918 xxiv

First International Congress of Working Women, 1919 xxv

Congress of Mexico City, 1921 xxiv

International Congresses of Semipublic and Private Associations

Congress of Brussels, 1897 xxv, 36, 248

Congress of Paris, 1900 xxvi, 38

International Association for Labor Legislation xxvi, 39, 40, 249

First Delegates' Meeting, Base), September 27, 28, 1901 41, 252

Second Delegates'^ Meeting, Cologne, September 23, 24, 1902. . .42, 254

Commission Meeting at Basel, September 9-11, 1903 43, 255

Third Delegates' Meeting, Basel, September 26, 27, 1904 44, 258

Fourth Delegates' Meeting, Geneva, September 27-29, 1906 47, 264

Fifth Delegates' Meeting, Lucerne, September 28-30, 1908 57, 269

Sixth Delegates' Meeting, Lugano, September 26-28, 1910 59, 281

Seventh Delegates' Meeting, Zurich, September 10-12, 1912 61, 300

International Congresses on Unemployment, 1906-1913 xxx, S3, 98, 322

Congresses of the International Federation for the Observance of

Congresses and Conferences of the Permanent International Committee on Social Insurance, 1889-1912 xxviii, xxix, 98, 100

Third International Congress on the Cultivation of Rice, 1906 56

International Congresses on Occupational Diseases, 1906-1910. . .xxix, xxx International Home Work Congresses, 1910-1912 xxx, xxxi, 61

Official International Labor Conferences

Conference of Berlin, 1890 xxxiii, 31, 244

Conference of Bern, 1905 xxxiv, 46, 112, 174-175

Conference of Bern, 1906 xxxiv, 47, 119, 175-180

Second International Peace Conference at The Hague, 1907 56

Conference of Bern, 1913 xxxiv, 64, 131, 318-321

Peace Conference, 1919 xxxvii, 104-110,401-412

Conference of Washington, 1919 xxxviii-xli, 101, 102, 412-432

Conference of Genoa. 1920 xUi, xliii, 102, 432-439

LABOR TREATIES

Page

Franco-Italian Treaty, 1904 137

Swiss-Italian Treaty, 1904 142

German-Italian Treaty, 1904 142

Treaty between Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1905 143

Accident Insurance Treaty between Luxemburg and Belgium, 1905 144

German-Luxemburg Accident Insurance Treaty, 1905 145

Franco-Italian Treaty, 1906 146

Franco-Belgian Accident Insurance Treaty, 1906 146

Franco-Italian Accident Insurance Treaty, 1906 148

Franco-Luxemburg Accident Insurance Treaty, 1906 149

International Convention Respecting the Prohibition of Night-Work for Women in Industrial Employment,

1906 112

International Convention Respecting the Prohibition of the Use of White (Yellow) Phosphorus in the Manufacture of Matches, 1906 112

German-Netherlands Accident Insurance Treaty, 1907. ... 150

Franco-British Accident Insurance Treaty, 1909 151

Hungarian-Italian Accident Insurance Treaty, 1909 i52

Franco-Italian Treaty, 1910 153

Franco-Italian Treaty, 1910 i56

German- Swedish Treaty, 191 1 156

Franco-Danish Treaty, 191 1 157

German-Belgian Accident Insurance Treaty, 1912 159

German-Italian Accident Insurance Treaty, 1912 160

German- Spanish Accident Agreement Respecting Sailors,

1913 163

Treaty between the United States and Italy, 1913 i64

Franco-Swiss Insurance Agreements, 1913 165

Italian-German War Arrangement, 191 5 166 xu

SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lowe: International Aspects of the Labor Problem, W. D. Gray, New York, 1918.

Gompers: American Labor and the War, Part One, Chapter IV, and Part Two, Doran, New York, 1919.

Hicks: The New World Order, Chapters XVI, XIX, XX, Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1919.

Ayusawa: International Labor Legislation, Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1920.

Lowe and Magnusson: Historical Survey of International Action Affecting Labor, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 268, Miscellaneous Series, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1920.

Solano, editor : Labor as an International Problem, Macmillan & Co., London, 1920.

Miller : International Relations of Labor, Alfred A. Knopf, PubUsher, N. Y., 1921.

Parkinson : "Constitutionality of Treaty Provisions Affecting Labor," in American Labor Legislation Review, March, 1919, pp. 21-32.

Chamberlain: "The Power of the United States Under the Constitution to Enter Into Labor Treaties," in American Labor Legislation Review, September, 1919, pp. 330-338.

"Migratory Bird Treaty Decision and Its Relation to Labor Treaties," in American Labor Legislation Review, June, 1920, pp. 331-335.

Commons and Andrews : Principles of Labor Legislation, Harpers, New York, 1920.

Duggan, editor : The League of Nations, Atlantic Monthly Press, Boston, 1919.

Lauck : "International Labor Question," Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Sciences, May, 1919, pp. 186-202.

International Labor Organization : Publications of the World Peace Foundation ; Report of the Commission on International Labor Legislation of the Peace Conference; The Peace Treaty and Labor Legislation in American Labor Legislation Review, Vol. IX, No. 3, September, 1919; Academy of Political Science, Prodceedings 8, No. 3, pp. 80-102.

The Conference of Washington, 1919: American Labor Legislation Review, Vol. IX, No. 4, December, 1919; London Nation, December, 1919; Monthly Labor Review, January and February, 1920, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics; New Republic, Dec. 24, 1919; American Federationist, January and February, 1920; The Survey, Nov. IS, 1919; Current History Magazine, N. Y. Times, January 3, 1920; American Child, I. pp. 186-192, November, 1919; Literary Digest, December 20, 1919 ; Review of Reviews, December, 1919.

The Conference of Genoa, 1920: American Labor Legislation Review, Vol. X, No. 3, September, 1920.

International Conferences : Labor Conference of Leeds, 1916, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2S4, pp. 123-125; Labor Conference of Bern, 1917, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 254, pp. 126-129; Interallied Socialist and Labor Conference, London, 1915, Labor's War Aims, special bulletin of International Concilication, June, 1918, pp. 179-181; Socialism in Thought and Action by Laidler, Macmillan, 1920; Pan-American Labor Conference, Laredo, 1918, "Report of the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor to the 39th Annual Convention, Atlantic City, June 9, 1919;" Pan-American Labor Presis, Dec. 4, 1918, printed in San Antonio, Texas ; Congress of the International Federation of Trade Unions Amsterdam, 1919, American Federationist, October, 1919, pp. 921-953; International Congress of Working Women, 1919, Life and Labor, Jan. 1920, published by the Women's Trade Union League; Conditions of the Third International, Nation, Oct. 13, 1920; Geneva and Moscow, Review, September 8, 1920; Socialist Internationale, Living Age, September 11, 1920; Socialist International, Geneva Congress, by Sidney Webb, New Republic, September 22, 1920; Third International, by John Spargo, Current History Magazine, N. Y. Times, September, 1920; American Socialists and Moscow, by M. Hillquit, Current History Magazine, N. Y. Times, October, 1920; The Two Internationals, by R. Palmo Dutt, London, Labor Research Department, 1920; The French Socialist Split, Independent, January 16, 1921, p. 68.

^V

The international protection of labor is a name for the movement which has resulted in the adherence of nations to treaties and conventions protecting workers. These agreements tend to establish international standards for the regulation of industry. The international activities of socialists, trade-unionists, social welfare workers, and governments constitute respectively the political, economic, scientific, and official phases of international action which has affected this movement. In its origin and early development it derived very much of its energy from the agitation of socialists. However, to influence existing governments to sign labor treaties was only an item upon the socialist program. The theory of socialism has been to change the principles underlying the present political and social order. Like the socialists, the trade-unionists have advocated international labor legislation, but their influence in this respect has been less than that of socialists. In its international aspects as well as in its national aspects, trade-unionism has been chiefly concerned with the economic improvement of the working classes and in strengthening labor in its collective bargaining with employers. It was the social welfare workers, organized in private and semi-public associations and aided by the co-operation of interested governments, who devised the efficient organization that led to the actual adoption of international labor laws by these governments. During the war, however, the propaganda of trade-unionists and socialists for international labor legislation and for the incorporation in the Peace Treaty of guarantees for the maintenance of proper labor standards became more pronounced than that of any other groups. A result of the war in its relation to the movement for international labor legislation was the creation of an International Labor Organization in conjunction with the League of Nations, by which governments assumed the official direction of this movement. Following is a brief historical summary of the four phases of international action which have contributed to the movement for international labor legislation.

International Socialist Movement?'

In 1838 the Communist League was founded in London for the purpose of bringing about the overthrow of the existing form of society by means of the international organization of workers in all countries. The League gained considerable publicity through the appearance in 1848 of "the manifesto of the Communist Party" written by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels.

Fourteen years after the dissolution of this League, the International Workingmen's Association was founded at London (1864). The organization represented originally a movement of trade-unionists for the economic emancipation of the workers. It contained, however, another group which advocated political domination by the working classes ; and, as a result of the influence exerted by this group under the guidance of Karl Marx during the first three congresses, the Association was converted into a socialist organization which is known as the First International. Ten international congresses are identified with this movement from 1864 to 1881. The Association continued active until 1872, when, through the loss of the confidence of its English members because of its supposed connection with the insurrection of the Paris Commune and through the dissension of Marxists and Bakunists within its ranks, it gradually lost its vigor and finally disappeared.

Congresses representing socialists and trade-unionists were convoked at Paris in 1883 and 1886, and at London in 1888. Both of the Congresses held at Paris advocated international labor legislation.

Because of differences which had arisen and which a special conciliatory Congress called by the Social Democratic group of the German Reichstag at The Hague, Feb. 4, 1889 (see p. 243),

*C/. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 268, Miscellaneous Series, pp. 34-64.

had failed to settle, the Marxists and Possibilists convened separate congresses in Paris, July 14, 1889. Before the end of their session a rapprochement between these two factions was reached and they agreed to hold their next meeting at Brussels in 1891. The coming together of these socialist groups marks the formation of what is known as the Second International. The Marxists advocated labor treaties for the international application of the protective labor principles embodied in their resolutions for the prohibition of the work of children under fourteen years of age, and of night-work in general; an eight-hour day; weekly rest; conservation of health etc.^; and they appointed five delegates to use their influence in behalf of such legislation at an international labor conference which had been proposed by the Government of Svntzerland. The Possibilists also favored international labor laws.

International labor legislation constituted the principal topic of discussion at the second Congress of the new International held at Brussels in August, 1891, and it was again discussed and advocated by the Congress of Zurich in 1893. Up to the time of the World War the Second International had held eight regular congresses, and one special peace conference in 1912.

In 1900 the International Socialist Bureau was established at Brussels as a result of the Congress held at Paris in that year. Its purpose was to gather and publish information on the problems of socialism and to report on the status of the socialist movement. Its official publication was entitled the Periodical Bulletin of the International Socialist Bureau. Each country was allotted two representatives in the membership of the Bureau while members of the Socialist Interparliamentary Commission were made alternate delegates with the privilege of taking part in its meetings. It was decided that the number of votes allowed to each country in the deliberations of the Bureau should be determined by the importance of the country in the socialist movement. By 1910 this organization had held twelve meetings, in which international labor legislation was one of a score or more of the topics considered. The World War caused the seat xvii of the International Socialist Bureau to be transferred from Brussels to The Hague for the duration of the war.

The Socialist Interparliamentary Commission was established in 1904, and its purpose was to enable the parliamentary representatives of socialists in different countries to co-operate for the realization of the aims of socialism. Each nation represented in the International Socialist Bureau was permitted to have one representative in the Interparliamentary Commission and to cast the number of votes warranted by its importance. Before the end of 1910 this Commission had held five conferences.

Socialist women have convened international conferences from time to time, for example at Stuttgart in 1907, and at Copenhagen in 1910. Moreover the Young Socialists organized internationally and in 1910 affiliated with the International Socialist Bureau.

After the outbreak of the war," the socialists of neutral countries met in Copenhagen in 1915 to denounce the war and to discuss means of obtaining peace. Socialists of the Central Powers met at Vienna in the same year for a similar purpose. Socialist and labor conferences were held by socialists representing the Allies at London in 1915, 1917, and 1918. Peace terms were discussed, and in 1918, the Congress went on record as favoring the establishment of a league of nations, the abolition of secret diplomacy and imperialism, and the reduction of armaments. It also discussed international means of combatting unemployment.

The first war-time international conference of socialists representing both sides in the war was held at Zimmerwald, Switzerland, in 1915, with representatives present from France, Italy- Bulgaria, Holland, Roumania, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Germany. The second international meeting was held at Kienthal, Switzerland, in 1916- Italy, Sweden, Russia and Germany were represented. These conferences were principally concerned with the action to be taken by the working classes in behalf of peace. The manifesto of the Kienthal Congress, con-

8 For wartime conferences compare Ayusawa, International Labor Legislation, Chapter IV.

xviii taining the signatures of Lenin of Russia, Bouderon of France, and Ledebour of Germany, called for revolution and refusal to support the war. The strength of the left wing or antiparliamentary socialists was increasing. The radicalism of this group led to the establishment of a rival International at Moscow in 1919, known as the Third International.

A war-time international socfalist conference occurred at Stockholm in 1917. Delegates arrived from France, Belgium and Germany, but the intervention of the Allies resulted in the holding of an informal meeting only, under the chairmanship of Branting, the leader of the Swedish party. Another international assemblage of socialists was held at Stockholm in the Fall of the same year.

After the signing of the armistice an important international meeting of socialists was convened at Bern in February, 1919. Twenty-five countries were represented including Germany Austria, Holland, Great Britain, France, Canada, and Argentina. A league of nations and the labor section of the Peace Treaty were prominent among the topics which were considered. The assembly favored a league of nations representing not only governments but peoples, the international control of oceans and high-' ways of transportation, a world system for the distribution of raw materials and food, and gradual disarmament. The various measures advocated as proper subjects for protective labor laws included the establishment of employment bureaus and systems of social insurance ; the adoption of the eight-hour day for adults, and the six-hour day for children between sixteen and eighteen years of age ; the prohibition of night-work of women ; the recognition of the necessity of weekly rest of thirty-six consecutive hours, and the institution of compulsory elementary education and free higher education. A commission was appointed for the restoration of the Second International.

This commission convoked conferences at Amsterdam in April, 1919, and at Lucerne in August, 1919. To the latter meeting delegates came from Belgium, Great Britain, France, Holland, and Germany. The minority group of the Russian socialists was also represented. The questions discussed were largely political.

Representatives of the discontented antiparliamentary socialists, called the socialist left wing, assembled at Moscow in March, 1919, on the invitation of the Russian communist party. Among the countries from which accredited delegates came to the gathering of this Communist or Third International were Roumania, Germany, Ukrania, Finland, Bulgaria, Norway, Sweden, Hungary and Armenia. There were other socialists present from the United States, Turkey, Jugo-Slavia, Persia, Korea, France, Switzerland, Holland, Bohemia, Great Britain, Serbia, Spain, and Denmark. This group called for the forcible overthrow of the capitalistic regime. Its manifesto was signed by Lenin, Trotzky, Zinovieo, Tchicherin and Fritz Plattan, and represents the form of socialism that secured the domination of Soviet Russia. The next meeting of the Third International was held at Moscow in July, 1920.

In the same month the Second International called a meeting at Geneva (July 31). The important parties left in the Second International were the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany, the British Labor Party,, the Belgian Labor Party, the Social Democratic Labor Party of Holland, the Austrian Social Democratic Party, the Majority Socialist Parties of Sweden and Denmark, the Polish Socialist Party, and the Finnish Social Democratic Party. The Geneva Congress voted to transfer the International Bureau from Brussels to London.

In 1919 French Socialist students issued a manifesto that caused the creation of the Comite Internationale des Etudiants Socialistes, with its headquarters in Geneva. In December of that year this body called an international meeting at Geneva to create an International Federation of Socialist and Communist Students. Sharp divergence of opinion, however, caused the formation of two separate bodies, the "Communist International Students' Federation," which affiliated with the Third International, and the "Independent Students' International," the aim of which was to unite all socialist and communist students for the peaceful realization of the principles of sociaHsm.

The international socialist movement in the Western Hemisphere has also been growing. In 1919 a Pan-American Socialist

Congress was held at Buenos Aires with representatives from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Paraguay, and Uruguay. This group sympathized with the radical left-wing socialists of Europe ; it represented a step toward greater unity among socialist groups of South America. The demands of the Congress of Buenos Aires included a forty-four hour week; the compulsory education of children under sixteen years of age; the prohibition of child labor; a minimum wage and the abolition of the trucking system ; the establishment of labor exchanges, etc. It caused the establishment of the American Labor and Socialist Secretariat at Buenos Aires.

International Trade-Union Movement

The International Workingmen's Association originated as a trade-union organization but became the Socialist International. After the disappearance of the First International, the trade-union element can be distinguished from the socialist element in the international congresses which, as has been mentioned above, were held at Paris in 1883 and 1886, and at London in 1888. Demands for international factory legislation were made at both of the Paris conferences. In 1897 the executive committee of the Swiss Workers' League called the Congress of Zurich the purpose of which was to promote labor legislation. This meeting urged the Swiss Federal Council to bring about the establishment of an international labor office. An international meeting of trade-unionists was held at Paris in 1900. The creation of an international secretariat was discussed and a resolution favoring the curtailment of the hours of labor was unanimously adopted.

After approximately the year 1900, the international trade-union movement became more clearly distinguished from the international socialist movement with which originally it had been incorporated. Delegates at labor congresses are often party socialists and trade-unionists at the same time. In many instances the leaders have been the same in both groups, and trade-unions — even non-socialist unions — ^have been represented at socialist congresses. This co-operation between trade-unionists and socialists was emphatically endorsed at the socialist Congress of Stuttgart in 1907.

Since 1900 and up to the time of the war, the principal activities of international trade-unions were confined mostly to purely trade-union affairs. They have sought through international federation to unify their standards. Unionism is organized internationally in two forms, viz., by trades and by federations.

International Trades Secretariats. — The single trades or crafts of different countries are united under international trades secretariats, as the offices of the international secretaries are called. Among the most prominent of these international craft organizations may be mentioned the International Federation of Miners (see p. 46) which was organized in 1890; the International Federation of Transport Workers, the origin of which may be traced back to an international gathering of railroad workers at Zurich in 1893 ; and the International Federation of Metal Workers organized in 1900. Before the war thirty-two crafts had such international organizations. Their secretaries held a joint meeting in Zurich for the first time, in 1913. The purpose was to promote greater unity in the trade-union movement and more co-operation between the international trades secretariats and the International Secretariat.

International Secretariat. — The second form of international trade-union organization is the International Federation of Trade Unions, of which the central office known as the International Secretariat, was permanently organized in 1901. Until 1913 it was known as the International Secretariat of the National Trade- Union Centers. The International Federation of Trade Unions represents : ( 1 ) the national federations of various countries, as for example, the American Federation of Labor which is made up of different trade organizations, (2) the federations of single trades, such as the International Federation of Textile Workers. The International Federation has held congresses at Copenhagen (1901), Suttgart (1902), Dublin (1903), Amsterdam (1905), Christiania (1907), Paris (1909), Budapest (1911), and Zurich (1913). Its first conference after the war was held at Amsterdam in August, 1919. At this meeting the old organization was abolished and a new International Federation of Trade Unions was formed with its International Secretariat located at Amsterdam. This assembly was dissatisfied with the labor clauses of the Peace Treaty as not providing adequate means for the protection of labor's interests, but it nevertheless decided to support the International Labor Organization of the League of Nations because it believed that this Organization might ultimately become the basis of a league representing peoples* as well as governments.

While the international unions of various trades have been primarily interested in problems peculiar to each trade, the international union of federations has sought for greater unity and solidarity in the trade-union movement as a whole- The tendency of officials of the International Federation in 1920 to favor socialistic propaganda prejudiced American workers against it. The Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor at its session in November, 1920, decided to postpone the consideration of the affiliation of the American Federation of Labor with the International Federation of Trade Unions until the next meeting of the Council.

International Labor Conferences. — A proposal of the American Federation of Labor, made in 1914 after the commencement of the war, to hold an international labor conference at the same time and place as that at which the peace conference would be held, attracted considerable attention and was endorsed by the Canadian Trades Union Congress and the French Confederation General du Travail. The proposal was considered by the Allied Supreme Council and resulted in the appointment of a commission of representative labor leaders of Great Britain, France, Italy and Belgium to make arrangements for an international labor conference. The conference was held at Leeds in July, 1916. This. meeting declared that the peace terms should in-

*For a discussion of the representation of peoples as well as governments in international organizations for the maintenance of peace, see pamphlet by Lowe entitled Why International Peace Failed in the Past and Why it May Fail in the Future, a reprint from the New York Sun of February 9th, 1919.