Problems of child welfare

Front matter

HV

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

Preface

With the gradual shifting of the emphasis from remedial to preventive and constructive work, problems of child welfare have received much attention, largely on the theory that work with children is fundamentally constructive in its nature. Believing that the best results are achieved by beginning with the child, the author has attempted to present in a systematic way the principles of child welfare, and to correlate the different problems involved. The task consists mainly of adjusting the constructive philanthropy of to-day to the needs of the child, his improvement being the direct objective. While it is recognized that every social problem involves children, those questions that affect them only in an indirect way are excluded from the book, and the subject matter is limited to the problems of direct and immediate interest, so as to make a consistent treatment of the subject possible. To meet the need as adequately as the author can hope to do in a single volume, each separate problem has been analyzed with reference to causes and conditions, to the existing social machinery for coping with the problem, and to a plan and program of improvement or prevention.

The book is designed especially for use by college and university students in courses on constructive and preventive philanthropy. However, the general reader has not been forgotten, and it is hoped that the book will appeal to that growing class of men and women who in a systematic way are endeavoring to acquaint themselves with the various aspects of practical sociology.

The author is happy to express his indebtedness to Professor Richard T. Ely for his suggestions as to the form and subject matter of the book, for his careful reading of the manuscript, and for his many valuable criticisms and suggestions for improvement.

Introduction

1. The Child and Heredity

2. The Factor of Environment

3. Child Problems and Statistics

4. The Social Obligations to Childhood

a. The Preservation of Life .

b. The Preservation of Health

c. The Opportunity to Play .

d. Freedom from Toil .

e. Education of Children

f. Care of Dependent Children

FAGB

1-15

Part I. The Conservation Of Life Chapter

I. Births and Birth Rates 19-30

1. Historical Data 19

2. Decline in Birth Rates 20

3. Costs of Motherhood 23

4. Fecundity of Women 24

5. Sterility 26

6. Still-births 27

7. Causes of Declining Birth Rates 28

8. Registration of Births 30

II. The Waste of Life 31^3

2. Decline in the Death Rates of Children ... 32

3. Historical Stages . 33

a. First Period 33

b. Second Period . 35

c. Third Period. Preventive Methods ... 36

4. Economic Cost of Child Mortality .... 37

5. Mental and Moral Effects 39

6. Physical Degeneracy ....... 40

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Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGB

III. Conditions Underlying Child Mo~rtality . . 44—58

1. Rural vs. Urban Mortality

2. Negro vs. White Death Rates

3. Social and Industrial Conditions

4. Illegitimacy ....

5. Age and Sex as Factors

6. The Reduction of Infant Mortality

7. Infant Mortality in Foreign Countries

44 46 48 50 50 51 56

IV. Physiological and Social Causes of Child Mortality 59-78

1. Diseases of Children 59

a. Diphtheria. ....... 59

b. Measles and Scarlet Fever .... 62

c. Whooping Cough and Respiratory Diseases . 63 a. Diseases of the Digestive System ... 64

e. Diseases of Early Infancy .... 67

f. Meningitis and Convulsions .... 68

g. Proportionate Mortality from Principal Diseases 68

2. Ultimate Causes of Child Mortality .... 70

a. Causes as classified by Farr and by Newsholme 71

b. Causes according to Newman .... 71

c. Detailed Table of Causes 71

3. Analysis of Important Causes 73

a. Poverty 73

b. Use of Cow's Milk 73

c. Ignorance and Indifference .... 77

d. Bad Housing Conditions 78

V. The Milk Problem ....... 79-96

2. Clean Milk 79

3. Temperature 80

4. Methods of Providing Good Milk 82

5. Significant Forms of Municipal Control ... 84

a. The Experience of Rochester, New York . 85

6. New York City . 88

c. Other Cities 89

d. Efifects of Inspection on Disease ... 90

6. State Control 91

7. Classification of Dairy Milk 92

8. Modified Milk 93

9. Milk Depots 93

TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER FACE

VI. Methods of Preventive Work 97-115

1. Encouragement of Maternal Feeding .... 97

2. Prenatal Work 98

3. Visiting Nurse Work 102

4. The Day Nursery 104

5. Education of Girls and Boys 104

6. Prevention of Overcrowding ...... 107

7. Prevention of Employment of Married Women . . 109

8. Provisions for Fresh Air . • . . . . 110

9. Reduction of Poverty and Vice Ill

10. Control of Midwifery Ill

11. Municipal Campaigns against Infant Mortality . . 113

12. Cooperation among Preventive Agencies . . . 114

Part II. Health And Physique

I. Physical Conditions of Children .... 119-135

1. Standards of Physique ....... 119

2. Comparative Development of Social Classes . . 120

3. Causes of Deterioration ...... 124

4. Physical Defectiveness ....... 124 b. Deafness 126

c. Physical Deformities 128

d. Tubercular Tendencies ..... 130

e. Minor Physical Defects 132

II. Care of Health and Physique 135-150

1. The Problem of Medical Inspection .... 136

a. Theory of Inspection 136

b. The Scope of Inspection 138

2. Organization of Medical Inspection .... 139

3. Methods of Examination 141

a. Medical Inspection 141

b. Physical Examination ..... 143

c. Examinations by Teachers .... 144

4. The Removal of Defects 144

5. Progress of Medical Inspection 149

III. Care and Training of Physical Defectives . . 151-165

1. The Blind 151

2. The Deaf . 153

3. Crippled Children 155

4. Tubercular and Anaemic Children 156

5. Underfed School Children 161

X TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

IV. Play and Recreation 166-188

1. Values of Recreation 167

a. Physical Values ....... 167

h. Social Values . . . . . . . 167

c. Mental Values 169

2. Recent Appreciation of Play 170

3. Facilities for Recreation ...... 171

a. Roof and Basement Playgrounds . . . 171

b. Streets and Vacant Lots 172

c. Public Recreation Centers .... 173

4. Types of Recreation Centers ..... 173

5. Progress of the Playground Movement .... 177

7. Administration ........ 181

8. Special Outdoor Activities 182

9. Commercial Recreations 184

V. Wider Uses of the Schools 189-202

1. School Playgrounds 189

2. Evening Centers 190

3. Social Centers 192

4. Physical Training 197

5. Vacation Schools ........ 200

6. School Gardens ........ 201

Part III. Training And Education

I. The Mental Classification of Children.

1. Mental Types

2. Causes of Mental Abnormality

a. Feeble-mindedness, Hovif Caused

b. Causes of Backwardness .

II. Education of Exceptional Children

1. Need of Classification of Children

2. Care of the Idiot

3. Education of the Feeble-minded .

4. Education of Backward Children ;" .

a. Methods of Providing for Education

b. History and Extent of the Movement

c. Principles of Care and Training

d. Results ......

e. The Montessori Method .

5. Facilities for the Gifted .....

205-214

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215-227

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TABLE OF CONTENTS id

CHAPTER PAGE

III. Some Social Aspects of Education .... 228-243

1. School Attendance 228

2. Illiteracy 231

3. Distribution of Children in Grades .... 233

4. Retarded and Underaged Children .... 236

5. Causes of Retardation and Elimination .... 238

6. Compulsory Education 240

7. Truancy 242

IV. Industrial Education 244-256

1. The Adaptation of Education 244

2. The Untrained Child in Industry 245

3. Vocational Guidance 246

4. Preparation for Industrial Training .... 247

a. Manual Training 247

i. Pre-vocational Schools 248

5. Forms of Industrial Training 249

a. Apprenticeship Schools ..... 249

i. Continuation Schools 251

c. Trade Schools 252

6. Plans for Vocational Education ..... 254

7. History and Development of Industrial Education . 255

V. Moral and Sex Education 257-268

1. Causes of Sex Irregularities 257

2. Results of Ilhcit Relations 259

3. Measures of Prevention 260

a. Societies of Social Hygiene .... 260

i. Public Educational and Preventive Work . . 262

c. Sex Education in the Schools .... 262

d. Education of Parents 266

e. The Church and Sex Education . . . 267

PART IV. CHILD LABOR Causes op Child Labor 271-283

1. Greed of Parents 271

2. Poverty 274

3. The Attitude of the Child 276

4. Demand for Child Labor 277

5. Modem Industrial Conditions . . ■ . . 280

6. Indifference of the Public 281

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

II. Factors of the Child Labor Problem

1. Occupations of Children

2. Age of Children

3. Literacy and Education .

4. Wages and Wage Advancement

5. Night Work and Overtime .

III. General Effects of Child Labor

IV. Child 1.

Introduction ....

Economic Cost of Child Labor Social Costs ....

Moral Effects ....

Physiological Aspects of Child Labor

a. Need of Good Physique .

b. Effect of Premature Employment

c. Incidental Results of Child Labor

d. Unhealthful Occupations

e. Effect of Night Work f. Summary .

d. e.

Legislation

Labor Reform Constructive Effort Legislation

a. Agencies supporting

b. Uniformity of Laws

c. A Standard Law Age Limits Physical Qualifications

/. Educational Requirements g. Hours of Labor . h. Night Work i. Working Papers /. Dangerous Trades k. Industries Exempted /. Street Trades Legislation . m. Minimum Wage Legislation Enforcement of Law

PAGE

319-341

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Part V. Juvenile Delinquency

1. Evolution of the " Juvenile Delinquent "... 345

2. Moral Classification of Children 347

TABLE OF CONTENTS XUl

CHAPTER PAGE

3. Conditions underlying Juvenile Delinquency . . 348

a. Changing Social Conditions .... 348

b. Home Conditions ...... 349

c. Environment and Associations .... 355

d. Criminal Tendencies 357

e. Retardation and Defectiveness .... 357 g. Poverty 359

4. Offenses of Delinquents 360

5. Number of Delinquents 352

II. The Juvenile Court 363-376

1. The Juvenile Court Movement 363

2. Extension and Organization 364

3. Selection and Qualifications of Judges '. . . . 366

4. Appearance of the Delinquent in Court . . . 368

5. Court Hearings • 369

6. Disposition of Offenders 371

7. Evolution of the Juvenile Court 373

8. The Juvenile Court in Other Countries . . . 375

III. The Probation System 377-391

1. Development of the Probation System .... 377

2. Probation Officers and their Duties .... 378

a. Investigating Officials 378

h. Officials engaged in Probationary Work . . 379

c. Volunteer Workers 381

d. The Judge as Probation Officer . . . 383

e. The Police as Probation Officials . . . 384

3. Qualities of Probation Officers . . , , . 384

4. Selection of Probation Officers 384

5. Probation Districts 385

6. Length of Probation 386

7. Number of Cases per Official 387

8. County Probation 387

9. Results of Probation 388

10. Probation and Cooperating Agencies .... 390

IV. Other Reformatory Agencies 392-406

1. Detention Homes ........ 392

2. Disciplinary Schools 392

3. Institutional Care 393

a. Evolution of Institutional Care .... 394

b. Present Functions of Institutions . . . 396

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACK

4. Types of Institutions 396

a. Parental or Truant Schools .... 397

b. Training and Industrial Schools . . . 398

c. State Reform Schools 399

d. Republics 400

5. Principles of Institutional Care 400

a. Separation of the Sexes 400

b. The Cottage System 401

c. Physical Training 402

d. Industrial and Literary Training . . . 402

6. Placing in Family Homes 405

V. Measures of Child Protection 407-418

2. Contributory Delinquency and Non-support Laws . 407

3. Age of Consent Laws 410

4. Neighborhood Activities 410

5. Parks and Playgrounds ....... 413

6. Prevention of Idleness . 414

7. The Training of Parents 415

8. Reduction of Personal Vice 416

9. Additional Measures of Protection .... 417

Part VI. Problems Of Dependent Children

I. The Dependent and Neglected Child . . . 421-432

1. Definitions 421

2. Types of Dependents ....... 421

3. Causes of Dependency ....... 423

4. Number of Dependent Children 429

II. Problems and Principles of Child Saving . . 433-448

1. General Principles of Child Saving .... 433

a. Principles asserted at the White House Conb. The Importance of the Home .... 434

c. The Foster Home 435

d. The Cottage Plan 436

e. State Supervision and Incorporation of Private

Agencies . 437

/ Records 439

g. Cooperation 439

k. Requisites of Institutional Care . . . 441

i. Prohibition of Children in Almshouses . . 441

TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

CHAPTER PAGE

2. Special Problems 442

a. Desertion and Non-support .... 442

b. The Illegitimate Child 444

c. The Defective Child 447

III. Private Child-Saving Agencies 449-473

1. Home and Aid Societies 449

2. Work of the New York Society 451

3. Denominational Placing-out Agencies .... 452

4. The Placing-out Problem 453

5. Difficulties of Placing-out 457

6. The Temporary Home 458

7. Indenture 458

8. Boarding Homes for Children 459

9. Results of the Placing-out System .... 450

10. Adoption 461

11. Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children . 461

a. Functions . 463

b. Work of Typical Societies .... 465

12. The Institution 467

a. Advantages of the Institution .... 468

b. Disadvantages 468

13. The Day Nursery 470

14. Needs and Reforms 472

IV. Public Child- Saving Agencies 474-487

1. The State School System 474

a. Essential Elements of the State School System 475

b. Placing-out 476

c. Results of System ...... 477

2. Boarding and Placing-out Systems .... 478

a. Child Saving in New Jersey .... 478

b. The Massachusetts Plan 479

c. City Systems 479

3. The County Home System 480

4. The Subsidy System 481

5. Care of Neglected Children 481

6. Pensions for Mothers . 482

INTRODUCTION

In modem social work the emphasis has been shifted from the parent to the child. The fact that this is so is due largely to belief in the principle " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Not relief but prevention is the slogan of modern social work ; not palliatives but fundamental social reforms are demanded to-day. It is well then to begin with the child, for he presages the coming man. He is the plastic material that can be molded ill or well ; he is gigantic in possibilities, but dwarfed if without opportunity.

We are beginning to realize that the more time and energy that are spent on the child, the more lasting and profitable is the investment. ~To educate and train the child is worth infinitely more than to labor with the deficiencies of the man with his crystallized habits and morals.

Again, child welfare involves adequate physical, mental, and moral development. If proper attention is not given to this, it is not possible to cope successfully with the varied problems of daily life. Childhood is the time of preparation; afterward little can be accomplished. Let society concentrate more of its energies on the child, instead of scattering them as it does to-day, and then with an equal expenditure of effort it will accomplish more good than can be realized in any other way.

I. The Child and Heredity.

At once the twin forces of heredity and environment confront society and complicate the problems which are to be solved. Of the two, heredity has probably been the subject of the more serious study. Biologists and psychologists are continually adding to our knowledge of the power and influence of heredity, and of its capability of benefiting or injuring the race. The term heredity has no uniform use in popular language. It will, therefore, for the sake of clearness, be limited in meaning in this book to the transmission by the parent to the offspring of those physical and mental characteristics which are potentially present in the germ-plasm of the parent. These characteristics in turn may be inherited or may be the result of toxins that injure the germ-plasm. Usually they are present at birth ; often, however, they do not appear until later in life ; for example, many cases of insanity appearing in middle life are truly inherited. On the other hand, certain defects present at birth are not necessarily innate. Instead of being inherited, they are due to peculiar prenatal conditions of the mother. These defects are classified as " acquired," and the offspring will not bequeath them to subsequent progeny.

Certain facts have been so definitely established by students of heredity that the sociologist can use them as corner stones on which to build a system of preventive work. In many cases the child is doomed before birth, and no later training can prepare him for a normal social life. Thus defective heredity is responsible for a large proportion of the children who are condemned to such lifelong abnormalities as idiocy, imbecility, backwardness, deaf-mutism, criminality, and certain forms of constitutional disease. As a result, these defects may be expected to reappear in the offspring of each subsequent generation. It is further an unfortunate fact that some of these defective groups are much more proHfic than the normal classes. A recent English Royal Commission states that the birth rate among the feeble-minded is double that of the general population. It is apparent from this that there is danger of a gradual dilution of the quality of the race unless preventive measures are adopted.

Within the last decade the application of the principles of heredity for the purpose of raising the physical and mental standards of the race has been much discussed, and a plan of practical eugenics is being gradually formulated. Strictly speaking, eugenics is the art of improving the race by selecting for survival the superior qualities inherent in men and rejecting those which are inferior. It means race development, and is concerned with improvements of a permanent nature. So-called practical eugenics is often made to apply wrongly to methods of promoting individual strength and capacity. The eugenist is correct in emphasizing the principle that every child be well born, that he be innately endowed with the capacity for development into a normal adult. The diflSculty, however, lies in the carrying out of a program of attainment. For this reason two phases of the subject have been developed ; " negative " and " positive " eugenics. „-—

Negative eugenics deals exclusively with the unfit classes. Among them reproduction is to be prevented, so that they may be gradually eliminated. The marriage of a feeble-minded person must not only be prohibited, but such steps must be taken as will insure his practical sterilization. By segregating idiots, imbeciles, instinctive criminals, and other groups in institutions this can be accomplished. But custodial care must be permanent to make this plan successful. So large a proportion of these classes are eventually released that one group of social workers favors sterilization as the best preventive measure- Eight states have already passed laws providing for a limited amount of sterilization in institutions. With one exception, however, these laws have so far generally remained inoperative. Without doubt the most serious cases of defect can be handled either through sterilization or custodial care. From the eugenic point of view, in fact, these offer fewer difficulties than do the thousands who suffer from slighter defects. Most of the latter are capable of partial self-support, and are not regarded as subjects for institutional care. Besides, the cost seems almost prohibitive. But these people will not refrain from intermarrying with others who are similarly defective, while sterilization cannot even be mentioned. No generally accepted program of action to solve this question has as yet been developed. However, sentiment is growing in favor of the gradual segregation of these groups.

Laws prohibiting intermarriage between first cousins and other near relatives may be considered a form of negative eugenics. The large proportion of defectiveness among Jews,

Mennonites, and other consanguineous groups shows how important such prohibitions are. The consanguineous marriages per se are not blameworthy, and it may safely be said that if the intermarrying stocks are vigorous, no harm will result. There are probably no perfect families, however, and strains of weakness are present in all. If two persons affected with the same weakness, as is likely in the case of relatives, marry each other, this weakness will probably be intensified in their children. For this reason such marriages should be prohibited. The recent agitation in favor of a certificate of health prior to marriage is also based on the desire to prevent the birth of unhealthy children.

Turning to the field of positive eugenics, we find that this has been cultivated but sparsely. The elementary principles have not even been established. The first step to be taken is the creation of a standard of superiority or perfection. This has not been done, nor can it be done with our present Umitations of knowledge. We do not know how much bulk and how many parts each organ of the body must contribute to the whole to form the man, perfect in body, in mind, and soul. When standards are established, how will they be applied ? How can people be persuaded to apply them? According to a recent English investigation, defectives are found in larger proportion among the first and second born than among the younger children. Further investigation may show that environment is a factor in determining this condition ; if not, then large families will give us a smaller proportion of feeble-mindedness. But does any eugenist believe that we can or will return to an era of large families ?

Suppose the eugenist has worked out the proper correlation between physical organ and mental quality ; suppose the innate tendencies of parents are known and we can predicate absolutely the characteristics of their children; then the most difficult problem of all remains, — that of mating individuals properly adapted to each other. To-day marriages depend on love, financial condition, the coercion of custom, and other factors. Is it possible for the course of love to be deflected by eugenic considerations ? Will the intermarriage of fortunes be prevented for similar reasons ? It is true that occasional cases of foresight and self-restraint occur from time to time, but for the masses the near future holds no such hope in prospect. Education for decades, and perhaps for centuries, is necessary to make even a beginning in the art of positive eugenics.

Francis Galton and his followers are the practical originators of the eugenic idea. These men have held to the Neo-Darwinian theory of heredity and have opposed the theory that acquired characteristics are inherited. Eugenic philosophy, therefore, adheres largely to the views of its founders. Race progress by selection is the dominant note. The recently rediscovered Mendelian law threatens to complicate the problem, and its application to the human race will be exceedingly diflScult. Often the effects would not be apparent until the second generation, when, of course, it would be too late. Positive eugenics cannot make much substantial progress until it considers the mental and moral qualities of men as well as the physical ; but this step will at once involve the problem and will make it difficult to realize the aims of the eugenic philosophy.

2. The Factor of Environment.

The term environment covers a multitude of influences. Some of these act before birth, but the majority are postnatal in character. These influences affect both body and mind, and thus help to determine physique and mentality. In many respects environment is the dominating factor of human development, and this appUes especially to the period of childhood. The physiology of children proves them to be extremely plastic in body, and psychology has rendered a similar verdict in respect to their mental qualities. Men are not grown up children, as the philosopher has said; they have been developed and transformed. A man having the same proportions as a child would be a monstrosity. The water constituency of a foetus is 97 per cent ; of a child, 74 ; of a man, only 58. Truly age withers the human being. The infant has a large head, and the child at five has a head which has nearly reached its maximum growth, but his legs are short and his arms lack the proportions that exist in the adult. So with the internal organs ; at birth the weight of the human brain is almost exactly one-seventh of that of the entire body, while in adult life it is about 2.4 per cent. Proportionately the former is six times as heavy as the latter, but the brain of the child is largely water, the gray and the white matter are not clearly distinguishable, and the convolutions are not marked. The babe is absolutely helpless. Most mammals have more initial capacity for self-support than he, but the brain and nervous system of the child, with its splendid possibilities, offers a remarkable field for the operation of environmental forces.

The blood constituency of the child is peculiar, for there is a large disproportion of white corpuscles and a singular absence of red ones. Strength and vitality come with a shifting of these proportions. Again, the child has much muscular tissue, but undeveloped and weak tendons. His heart is comparatively large, and so in general are the other internal organs. So different is the child from the man, that the right food, proper exercise, and correct training given throughout the period of flexibility should be capable of wonderful results.

Prenatal conditions must be studied and their effects noted. Then proper attention must be demanded for the prospective mother during the period of gestation. Formerly it was generally beUeved that a special mental bent or potential proficiency in some art could be deliberately imparted by the foresighted mother. This belief, however, has become antiquated and lacks scientific support, but a new question has recently arisen. What influence has the physical condition of the expectant mother on the physique of her child? Investigation shows this influence to be considerable, and that the child may suffer constitutionally if subjected to abnormal conditions during his prenatal life. Nature has done her utmost to protect the child, and sacrifices the mother thereby, but complete protection is not afforded. The foetus receives its nourishment through absorption of food, still toxins affecting the mother are passed on. If it is insufliciently nourished, it is surely retarded in development, and sometimes defects of a permanent character are produced.

Since the nutritive process is so important, it must be carefully controlled. Any interruption in the continuous absorption of the food elements may halt the regular development of the chUd. Therefore it must not be allowed to suffer from malnutrition. Many causes, however, operate to produce injurious results. Perhaps the mother is overworked and has no surplus energy to impart to the child. Worry interferes with digestion and may injure the child. Fright has no direct effect, but the shock to the nervous system means interference with the nutritive system and a possible interruption in the free development of the foetus. Finally the mother may herself suffer from malnutrition. At all events, the injury is accomplished chiefly through the interrupted development caused by interferences with the nutritive processes, and peculiar defects frequently result. Consequently this becomes a matter of tremendous importance. The early postnatal life of the chUd must be guarded in a similar manner.

John Fiske first saw that the helplessness of the newly born babe coupled with the prolongation of his period of childhood furnished untold possibilities of development. The relative importance of instinct and the remarkable plasticity of the child allow the marvelous development of reason that man has enjoyed. A long childhood makes room for the play of environmental forces, and this influence is stronger in proportion to the initial helplessness of the child. The more the native flexibility, the greater is the capacity for training and for nurture. The impressionable child easily yields to the influence of contact with the remaining members of the family. In early life certain characteristics and psychical traits become relatively fixed, owing to constant association with special mental types. That part of the child's psychical nature which is clearly and absolutely individual and his own is relatively small. The greater portion of his characteristic mental endowment is gained from the interaction of his own small mental nucleus with the minds of his parents and other members of the family. It is well known how ardently adults cling to the beliefs and traditions acquired during childhood. Social heredity within the family — that is, the transmission of ancestral ideas, traditions, prejudices, and knowledge — is a powerful factor in the life of every normal individual. " Like father, Kke son," is often largely the result of this kind of communication and influence. Thousands of years of stationary civilization in China furnish a most striking example ; likewise the forces that have retarded the woman's movement of the nineteenth century. The general tendency of children to follow the religious and political beliefs of their parents illustrates the power of social heredity, but social heredity is only a form of environment. The fixation of mental and moral traits in the human being should be a paramount consideration in the training and development of the child during the entire adolescent period of his life. Right training from the earliest self-conscious moments of life is therefore a matter of great sociological importance.

Most important among the conditions of environment are the home surroundings of the child. His home environment continues comparatively unchanged for a longer period of time than do external conditions. Home life and adequate home training are therefore vital in the development of the child. Unless prevented, the child, particularly the boy, soon becomes subject to influences emanating from without the home, and these in turn tend to mold his character as well as to afiect his physical well-being. His associates, the manner of his life, the sanitary conditions of school, street, alley, or workshop, — all of these considerations directly afiect both his physique and his character. Attention to the environment of the child both within and without the home is accordingly the sine qua non of the solution of our child problems.