Paidology; the science of the child. The historical child

Front matter

H!

H

Qfatttell InioecHitg Eibratg

Preface

In the Pedagogicail Semmary for December, 1893, in an article on "The Hearing of Children," the last paragraph, page 438, occurred for the first time in print the word paidology.^ In The Forum for February, 1894, page 728, the first article explanatory of paidology appeared. A more complete outlining of the subject was as a doctor's dissertation at the University of Jena, Xrermany, 1896. In the first edition of the Standard Dictionary was included the word paidology, wherein it was defined as "The scientific study of the child." Paidology originated in my mind at a very unexpected moment one day in April, 1893.

This book is the first of a series that it is my purpose to write upon child life. The others will follow from time to time upon the different phases of child being. This book and the others it is hoped may appear are the outcome of several years of study and of teaching the subject to young men and women, which has proved to me that people are eager to know about children in the past as well as in the present. He who wishes to acquaint himself with children and ciuld nature must have a knowledge of child life as it existed among the various nations of the world. The child as found in Ancient Mexico and Ancient Peru is given place here because the life and doings of these peoples have always been attractive reading to me, and also it is well to consider child life in these nations who reached such a high stage of existence among the lower forms of human society and so far removed from the civilizations of Asia and Europe. It is hoped there is value in this work to the student of child nature and that young people may find it interesting and profitable.

It will be noted that there are topics of a general nature given in this work, which purports to be a study of child life. When it is considered that the affairs of a nation affect every class and age of the persons constituting it and espe-

* The ai in paidology is pronounced as in aide, as t in pine.

8 PREFACE

cially react upon women, the mothers, then it may be understood how vital these matters become in a study of child life among a people and how necessary they are for a better comprehension of what is directly connected with children. Too the term "child" is used here in a general sense, to include all ages up to full manhood.

It seems to me that everything done and studied in my whole life touches this science of the child and that everyone with whom I have come in contact has aided me. It is wished here to express in a general way my thanks to these friends for their help. I must, though, mention by name a few who have more directly made this book possible. First of all is President G. Stanley Hall of Clark University, the great leader and pioneer in the study of children, with whom I spent two years and from whom I first obtained the right ideas of studying child life. Another is Professor Wilhelm Rein of the University of Jena, who kindly permitted me to use paidology as the subject for my doctor's thesis and extended the time for working on it, thus giving 'me opportunity for use of material at Berlin and when completed he endorsed the thesis, "Paidologie, Bntwurf zu einer Wissenschaft des Kindes," to the Senate of his University. A third one to whom I am greatly indebted is Professor Rudolph Bucken of the University of Jena, whose lectures listened to for a year gave me a broader view of life and the sympathy he expressed for myself and work were of the utmost encouragement and too at a time when well needed. I owe much to Prof. Dr. W. Preyer of the University of Berlin, now deceased, who wrote me encouragingly of my work before my going to Germany and while there he talked over matters with me and went over the thesis when completed and had faith in the idea I was promulgating, new at that time, that the study of the child is a science in and of itself an'd for which I had originated the term paidology, and he advised and encouraged me to make it my life study.

I must take this opportunity to express gratitude to my wife who so willingly gave up the many things which are so dear to a woman and a mother that there might be acquired by myself the very best education the world could give and so make possible the coming forth of paidology and aU it may contain.

O. C.

The OMo Vnwersiiy.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

PEEFACE 7

I. THE CHILD IN MEXICO 15-38

Chapter I The Child In Mexico

The People. When the Spaniards entered Mexico, in the sixteenth century, and conquered it, they found the ruling people to be the Aztecs and whose capital city, Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), was on an island in the lake of Tezcoco. The Aztecs were not the first inhabitants of Mexico as they had entered the country some five hundred years before the Spanish conquest and through alliances and conquests had become the ruling power about a century before the appearance of the Spaniards. The people whom the Aztecs found when they entered Mexico told them of a great people who had lived before their time and the ruins of whose great buildings remained and still exist to the present day and who were designated the Toltecs. It has been claimed for the Toltecs a very high state of civilization, much in advance of the Aztecs, and some even holding that it really equaled the civilization of the present time.

Mexico at the time of the conquest by the Spaniards was a monarchy, in which the king stood supreme as he was a priest of their great god, commander-in-chief of the military forces, and supreme judge. The throne, however, was not hereditary, as upon a vacancy a ruler was selected by four officers appointed for that purpose by the nobles and principal officials of the kingdom. The king was usually taken from the ruling family and might have been a brother of the late ruler or a nephew belonging to an elder branch. The office-holders were usually appointed for life and at their death the vacancies were filled by appointment by the king. The people were divided into classes. The highest class was a landed aristocracy, who paid no definite taxes but owed service to the king; a second class, who ranked with the landed aristocracy, was a military nobility who held land at the kiag's goodwill; the next class embraced the freemen, who held land in common and paid taxes in common ; below these were a class of freemen who rented the lands of the lord and made payment to him for the same ; and the lowest of all were the serfs, who were bound to the soil. They maintained a military system and made war upon neighboring tribes ; at the time of the coming of the Spaniards this seemed to have been carried on mostly for the purpose of securing captives for the human sacrifices demanded by their religion. They had an elaborate and efficient judicial system and the laws seem to have been justly administered to all alike, whether the ones before the courts were of higher rank or of the common people.

Women and Majriage. The women were described by the Spaniards as being pretty, with long black hair, and with a serious and rather melancholy cast of countenance. It would appear that they were treated with much consideration by the men who permitted them to engage in festivities and entertainments equally with themselves.

M arriage was an importan t institution with the Mexicans and iTwas hela m such high^teem that there was a tribunal appointed for the sole purpose of attending to matters relating to it. The customary age with men for marriage was about twenty, women marrying at a younger age. "VPTien a young man reached this age it became his duty t^ marry and sometimes the high priest commanded it of him. The) selection of the bride was made by the parents and if al young man refused to abide by his parents' decision and! made his own choice, he was looked upon as being quite uijJ grateful to his parents. Should he refuse to marry, it was his duty to remain continent through his life and devote himself to the service of the gods. Should he afterward decide to marry, he was despised by his friends and publicly denounced for not keeping his vow to the gods and no respectable woman would marry him.

-When the parents had decided it was time for their son to marry, all the relatives were called together and a feast given at which the father announced to them that the son was of proper age to be married. The son was then informed that his parents were about to select a bride for him, to which the young man gave consent. Then they called in

The CJiiid in Mexico 17

the priests under whom the young man had received his education and their permission was obtained and one of the priests addressed the young man with advice for the occasion. The next step was to ascertain the day and sign of the young man's birth and also the birthday and sign of the young woman, which was obtained through astrologers or soothsayers. If the horoscopes of both were favorable and showed that the union would have good fortune all was well; if not, another girl had to be selected. If the augurs were favorable to the union, two discreet and virtuous elderly women were called in as go-betweens. These women were given their directions and they called upon the parents of the bride and after a second visit preliminaries were arranged.

The parents of the girl then called in the relatives and friends and informed them of the affair and the girl was given much advice by them. Then their decision was sent to the parents of the young man. A favorable day for the marriage was found by the augurs and both families made preparations for the day of marriage and sent out invitations to relatives and friends. On the day set for the marriage the relatives and friends of the bride went to her home as did also some of the bridegroom's relatives and friends and in procession escorted her to his home, where the best room in the house had been fitted up for the occasion and the house festooned with green branches and garlands of flowers. The bridegroom met the bride at the entrance to his home and took her by the hand and led her into the room for the ceremony. They were then seated upon a special mat, the woman at the left of the man. The mother of the bridegroom gave presents to the bride and the mother of the bride gave presents to the bridegroom. Then the priest made a long talk to the couple, defining their duties to one another and toward the married state. The couple then arose and the priest tied the end of the man's mantle to the dress of the woman. A feast was then partaken of but in which the couple did not participate as they were required to spend\ four days in fasting and prayer in the room, closely guarde^/ by old women. Upon the fourth night two priests prepared a couch of two mats and the young people were left to themselves. The next day they underwent a baptismal ceremony and they were adorned with new apparel and some more advice was given them by the mothers-in-law or nearest

18 The Historical ChUd

relatives, another feast was given of which they partook, and the marriage ceremony was then fully completed.

Cousins were allowed to marry but not nearer relatives. As a rule a widow was not permitted to remarry except a brother of her deceased husband and in case she had children by the first marriage, then it was the duty of the brother-inlaw to marry her that the children might not be without the care and protection of a father. Divorce was allowed but only after a careful hearing by the tribunal on marriage, and when a divorce was granted the couple could not under any circumstances be reunited. Concubinage was practiced and it might occur even with young people under marriageable age upon the consent of the parents. In this there was no contract or ceremony, the two simply living together. In case a child was born to them a marriage was performed or else the woman returned to her parents' house, taking the child with her which was then considered as belonging to her parents. This was not considered dishonorable on the part of the girl nor were her chances for marriage in any degree lessened by her having thus lived in a state of concubinage. Polygamy was permitted but perhaps it was not greatly indulged in and it was chiefly among the wealthiest people. The necessity for monogamy seemed to be understood, as a record is given of a father counselling his son that for the proper perpetuation of the race but one man is ordained but for one woman.

Birth. As soon as a woman was found to be pregnant the relatives and friends were informed of it and a feast was prepared, to which all were invited who had been present at the wedding. Speeches of congratulations and of admonition were made to the future parents. During the period before the birth of the child, the mother was careful aiid she observed many rules. "Thus, sleeping in the daytime would contort the child's face; approaching too near the fire or standing in the hot sun would parch the foetus; hard and continued work, lifting weights, running, mental excitement, such as grief, anger, or alarm, were particularly avoided; in case of an earthquake all the pots in the house were covered up or broken to stop the shaking; eating tzictU, or chicle, was thought to harden the palate of the unborn child, and to make its gums thick so that it would be unable to suck, and also to communicate to it a disease called netentzzoponiztU; neither must the edible earth, of

The Child in Mexico 19

which, as we shall see in a future chapter, the Mexicans were very fond, he eaten by the mother, lest the child should prove weak and sickly; but everything else the woman fancied was to be given her, because any interference with her caprices might be hurtful to her offspring." ^ When the time of confinement drew near another feast was given and speeches and suggestions were made. Among the higher classes a midwife was procured and careful preparation was made for the confinement. A woman dying in childbirth was honored by a burial with great ceremony. When the child was bom, there was rejoicing with praises to the mother and congratulations to parents and grandparents, and even the child itself was spoken to in welcoming words by the midwife as it was being dressed.

Casting the Nativity of the Infant. As trolojr y was held^ in high esteem by the Mexicans and it was used to decide/ the fortune of the infant. On the birth of a child the astrologer was summoned and upon being told the time of the event he cast the horoscope of the infant. If the augury was favorable he told of the great fortune coming to the child and of the honors and happiness to fall upon him. Should the augury prove imfavorable, it was made less severe by the horoscopist who found accompanying signs that helped allay the evil coming from the bad omens.

Baptizing and Naming the Child. The rite of baptism was early performed upon the child, at which time it was given a name. The house was decorated with branches and flowers, a feast was prepared, and relatives and friends invited. Miniature weapons were used, if a boy, to show that he was bom a warrior, and, if a girl, small weaving utensils as symbols of her future calling of housewife. The child, if \ a boy, was usually named from the sign of the day or a bird ) or animal, and, if a girl, was named from a flower. Some^ times a child took its name from some important event which occurred at the time of its birth. A solemn invocation to the gods was made, after which the head and lips of the infant were touched with water, the name was given to it, and then it was lifted up to heaven and a prayer of blessing said over it.

Care and Treatment of Children. Upon the arrival of a child into a family, friends and neighbors congratulated them

'Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 267.

upon such, for it was deemed quite a blessing. Although children were welcomed, yet the discipline of younger children was rather severe £ind children were taught to -reverence and obey their parents and superiors. Both boys and girls were carefully reared by the best parents.

The following admonitions of a father to his son show how greatly these ancient Mexicans would have their children observe a right living: —

"My son, who art come into this light from the womb of thy mother, like the chicken from the egg, and like it, art preparing to fly through the world, we know not how long heaven will grant to us the enjoyment of that precious gem which we possess in thee; but, however short is the period, endeavor to live exactly, praying God continually to assist thee. He created thee ; thou art His property. He is thy Father, and loves thee still more than I do; repose in Him thy thoughts, and day and night direct thy sighs to Him. Reverence and salute thy elders, and hold no one in contempt. To the poor and the distressed be not dumb, but rather use words of comfort. Honor all persons, particularly thy parents, to whom thou owest obedience, respect, service. Guard against imitating the example of . those wicked sons who, like brutes, that are deprived of reason, neither reverence their parents, listen to their instruction, nor submit to their correction ; because, whoever follows their steps will have an unhappy end, will die in a desperate or sudden manner, or will be killed and devoured by wild beasts. . . .

"When any one discourses with thee, hear him attentively, and hold thyself in an easy attitude, neither playing with thy feet, nor putting thy mantle to thy mouth, nor spitting too often, nor looking about you here and there, nor rising up frequently if thou art sitting ; for such actions are indications of levity and low breeding.

"When thou art at table do not eat voraciously, nor show thy displeasure if anything displeases thee. If any one comes unexpectedly to dinner with thee, share with him what thou hast ; and when any person is entertained by thee, do not fix thy looks upon him.

"In walking, look where thou goest, that thou mayest not push against any one. If thou seest another coming thy way, go a little aside to give him room to pass. Never step before thy elders, unless it be necessary, or that they order thee to do so. WTien thou sittest at table with them, do not eat or

The ChMd in Mexico 21

drink before them, but attend to them in a becoming manner, that thou mayest merit their favor.

"When they give thee anything, accept it with tokens of gratitude; if the present is great, do not become vain or fond of it. If the gift is small, do not despise it, nor be provoked, nor occasion displeasure to them who favor thee. If thou becomest rich, do not grow insolent nor scorn the poor; for those very gods who deny riches to others in order to give them to thee, offended by thy pride, will take them from thee again to give to others.

"Support thyself by thy own labors; for then thy food will be sweeter. I, my son, have supported thee hitherto with my sweat, and have omitted no duty of a father; I have provided thee with everything necessary, without taking it from others. Do thou so likewise. . . .

"Stay no longer than is necessary in the market-place; for in such places there is the greatest danger of contracting vices.

"When thou art offered an employment, imagine that the proposal is made to try thee; then accept it not hastily, although thou knowest thyself more fit than others to exercise it; but excuse thyself until thou art obliged to accept it; thus thou wilt be more esteemed.

"Be not dissolute; because thou wilt thereby incense the gods, and they will cover thee with infamy. Restrain thyself, my son, as thou are yet young, and wait until the girl whom the gods destine for thy wife arrives at a suitable age ; leave that to their care, as they know how to order these things properly. When the time for thy marriage is come, dare not to make it without the consent of thy parents, otherwise it will have an unhappy issue.

"Steal not nor give thyself up to gaming; otherwise, thou wilt be a disgrace to thy parents, whom thou ought rather to honor for the education they have given to thee. If thou wilt be virtuous, thy example will put the wicked to shame. No more, my son, enough hath been said in discharge of the duties of a father. With these counsels I wish to fortify thy mind. Refuse them not, nor act in contradiction to them; for on them thy life and thy happiness depend." ^

The girl was not degraded among the Mexicans, and she

'Bames, Studies in education, I, 75. ("The History of Mexico. By Francesco S. Clavigero. Translated by Chas. Cnllen, London, 1787, vol. I., pp. 335 et seq.")

22 The Eistorical CMld

was treated with tenderness and love. How well cafed for was the girl is attested by the following advice of an Aztec mother to her daughter: —

"My daughter, bom of my substance, brought forth with my pains, and nourished with my milk, I have endeavored to bring thee up with the greatest possible care, and thy father has wrought and polished thee like an emerald, that thou mayest appear in the eyes of men a jewel of virtue. Strive always to be good; for otherwise who will have thee for a wife? Thou wilt be rejected by every one. Life is a thorny, laborious path, and it is necessary to exert aU our powers to obtain the goods which the gods are willing to yield to us; we must not therefore be lazy or negligent, but diligent in everything. Be orderly and take pains to manage the economy of thy house. Give water to thy husband for his hands, and make bread for thy family. Wherever thou goegt, go with modesty and composure, without hurrying thy steps, or laughing with those whom thou meetest, neither fixing thy looks upon them nor casting thy eyes thoughtlessly, first to one side and then to another, that thy reputation may not be sullied; but give a courteous answer to those who salute and put any question to thee.

"Employ thyself diligently in spinning and weaving, in sewing and embroidering; for by these arts thou wilt gain esteem, and all the necessaries of food and clothing. Do not give thyself too much to sleep, nor seek the shade, but go in the open air and there repose thyself, for effeminancy brings along with it idleness and other vices.

"In whatever thou doest encourage not evil thoughts but attend solely to the service of the gods, and the giving comfort to thy parents. If thy father or thy mother calls thee, do not stay to be called twice ; but go instantly to know their pleasure, that thou mayest not disoblige them by slowness. Return no insolent answers, nor show any want of compliance; but if thou canst not do what they command, make a modest excuse. If another is called and does not come quickly, come thou, hear what is ordered, and do it well. Never offer thyself to do that which thou canst not do. Deceive no person; for the gods see all thy actions. Live in peace with everybody, and love everyone sincerely and honestly, that thou mayest be loved by them in return.

"Be not greedy of the goods which thou hast. If thou seest anything presented to another, give way to no mean suspi-

The Child in Mexico 23

dons; for the gods, to whom every good belongs, distribute everything as they please. If thou wouldst avoid the displeasure of others, let none meet with it from thee.

"Guard against improper familiarities with men; nor yield to the guilty wishes of thy heart; or thou wilt be the reproach of thy family, and wilt pollute thy mind as mud does water. Keep not company with dissolute, lying, or idle women; otherwise they will infallibly infect thee by their example. Attend upon thy family, and do not go on slight occasions out of thy house, nor be seen wandering through the streets, or in the market-place; for in such places thou wilt meet thy ruin. Remember that vice, like a poisonous herb, brings death to those who taste it; and when it once harbors in the mind it is difficult to dispel it. If in passing through the streets thou meetest with a froward youth who appears agreeable to thee, give him no correspondence, but dissemble and pass on. If he says anything to thee, take no heed of him nor his words ; and if he follows thee, turn not your face about to look at him, lest that might inflame his passion more. If thou behavest so, he will soon turn and let thee proceed in peace.

"Enter not without some urgent motive into another's house, that nothing may be either said or thought injurious to thy honor, but if thou enterest into the house of thy relations, salute them with respect and do not remain idle, but immediately take up a spiadle to spin or do any other thing that occurs.

"When thou art married, respect thy husband, obey him, and diligently do what he commands thee. Avoid incurring his displeasure, nor show thyself passionate or ill-natured; but receive him fondly to thy arms, even if he is poor and lives at thy expense. If thy husband occasions thee any disgust, let TiiTn not know thy displeasure when he commands thee to do anything ; but dissemble it at that time, and afterwards tell him with great gentleness what vexed thee, that he may be won by thy mildness and offend thee no farther. Dishonor him not before others ; for thou also wouldst be dishonored. If any one comes to visit thy husband, accept the visit kindly, and show all the civility thou canst. If thy husband is foolish, be thou discreet. If he fails in the management of wealth admonish him of his failings; but if he is totally incapable of taking care of his estate, take that charge upon thyself, attend carefully to his possessions and never omit to pay the workmen punctually. Take care not to lose anything through negligence.

"Embrace, my daughter, the counsel which I give thee. I am already advanced in life, and have had sufficient dealings with the world. I am thy mother. I wish that thou mayest live well. Fix my precepts in thy heart and bowels, for then thou wilt live happy. If by not listening to me, or by neglecting my instructions, any misfortunes befall thee, the fault will be thine and the evil also. Enough, my child. May the gods prosper thee." ^

Dress. The men wore a long broad girdle or sash with the ends hanging down before and behind, which sash often was figured and the ends fringed or tasseled. They also wore a cloak or mantle, which was thrown over the shoulders and tied around the neck. The women wore a short tunic, usually without sleeves, and with it a short skirt under which they would wear another skirt of longer length, these skirts often beiag embroidered and ornamented. Over tunic and skirt they would wear a long loose robe, which might have at its upper part a hood attached, for wearing over the head. The material first used for clothing was of skins and later of maguey and cotton. Mantles of fur and of feather-work were also worn in cooler weather by both men and women. They wore sandals made of deer and other skins and also of nequen and cotton.

The ordinary way of wearing the hair was to cut it short on the forehead and temples and let it grow at the back. Unmarried girls wore their hair loose, while the virgins who served in the temple had their hair cut short. In some parts the heads of the children were shaved, with a tuft left behind. Women after marriage on becoming mothers would sometimes let their hair grow on all parts and arrange it on the head; one way was to plait it and cross it on the forehead, smother way was to braid it and ornament it with flowers. Also, sometimes the women would use a dye made of herbs on their hair, which gave it a violet shade.