Essays on the foundation of education

Contents

Preface, - iv

I

Intellectual Education, -

Preface

The aim of these essays is to attempt to define the foundation of education according to the demand of science of today, and according to the necessities of societies.

Intending to write to a diverse public, the author was obliged to stand on a very general ground.

J. G.

Detroit, Mich., Dec. 4, 1899.

Introduction

Everything, from the beginning to the end of its existence is surrounded by the tutelage of nature. This tutelage consists in nature's giving to the thing the means for the maintenance of its existence in order to play its corresponding roll in the Universe. These means are the tendency in all things to conserve themselves, further they are the internal faculties and forces of the thing with many external conditions.

On the one hand, natural tutelage produces this benefit: that the external conditions, calling a thing into existence, are mostly adapted for its support; and on the other hand, that all things have given the possibility of best adapting themselves to external conditions, which (possibility of best adapting) causes the development of the different faculties and forces in the thing.

All processes of the generation of things and of their development are produced without their knowledge. Even, in . this, man is no exception, because nature calls him into existence and develops all the organs of his body, his faculties and forces, unconsciously to him.

And thus man has no knowledge of his generation; of the processes of the blood's circulation, respiration, digestion; of the processes of his nervous system; he unconsciously adapts himself to climatical and social conditions and develops, as far as he needs, his different faculties. All this is produced in him without his knowledge, on account of the universal tutelage of nature, which wishes to sustain his existence in order that he may play a certain part assigned to him in the Universe. Even if man consciously wishes to adapt himself to something, or to develop certain faculties, his knowledge and will only enable him to submit himself to certain laws of nature, which itself brings about in him the process of the adaption to something or the development of some faculties; but man is not conscious how these processes originate and are carried on. He is able to understand the different ideas, to conserve, compare, and to reproduce them, to reflect upon them, etc.; but intellectual processes are produced by nature alone.

With the help of his intellectual faculties (and senses) one can observe the proceedings of nature both internally and externally, and because nature proceeds according to certain stable laws, (otherwise it would be chaos) hence, on the foundation of observation, he can formulate scientifical principles.

To do so, is nothing else but to discover the laws * of the natural proceeding.

*By the laws according to which nature proceeds, I understand the stable action of nature is the same in the same conditions. On the basis "of this stability in nature's proceedings, we produce in our intellect the idea of nature's laws. Beasts are acquainted with some principles of nature's proceeding, as to conservation of

By these discoveries man is able to help nature. To discover these laws is the aim of the sciences. Therefore on the progress of sciences depends the better co-operation with nature in the development of all our faculties, and, even many external conditions, helping in the maintenance of our existence. This co-operation on our part is education, in the general signification of the word. And thus we can educate what is internal, namely: the different faculties and forces in our body, the intellectual faculties, our character, etc. Also, by the . investigation of the various natural phenomena and the application of scientific discoveries, man is able to maintain and improve his existence. Social life, to which man is inclined by nature (man is a social being) is also one of the external conditions, . which improve our existence. Man, helping nature in this, develops and irhproves society.

their existence, but they know it only by instinct and do not understand it by mental reflection. For this reason they cannot create science.

To these external conditions, religion belongs also. (Religion has its foundation in our persons.) It brings to perfection the human nature by the strict determination of moral laws, which nature generally determines, and by calling our attention to the Supreme source of laws. In short man cultivates both the internal, and the external conditions of life in order that he may bring his existence to the highest possible perfection, for the greater perfection causes greater happiness.

Nature gives to man the ability to bring his existence gradually to perfection that he may be more able to perform his part. (Nothing exists without its corresponding roll, otherwise it would be against universal natural economy.)

The more man understands his part the more he is able to help nature in the development of internal and external conditions ameliorating his existence. And, on the contrary, the less he understands his roll designed by nature, the more he will place obstacles in- nature's way and retard the natural processes of development. These obstacles can be placed in the way of nature only by man himself; other objects cannot throw obstacles in nature's w^y, because they are not capable of independent action. Nature gives them a tendency to preserve their existence and even forces (nature) them with absolute necessity to perform their parts in the Universe. With man it is otherwise; the more his intellectual faculties are developed and his will is delivered, the more nature gives to him self-dependence not to do what he wishes, but through his understanding to co-operate spontaneously with nature in its proceeding. On the contrary if he throws impediments in the way of nature's tendencies, he loses his self-dependence and nature violently compels him to co-operate with its tendencies.

The result of what I have thus far stated shows, that education is helping nature in perfecting the internal and the external conditions of our existence on the basis of knowledge of nature's proceeding.

All that belongs to education is included in the above definition, namely: knowledge of nature's proceeding creates intellectual education which is the basis of all education, because no one is able to help (consciously) nature if he does not know its proceeding.

On the basis of knowledge of nature's proceeding we develop the faculties and forces of our own bodies or those of others. This constitutes physical education.

Moral education is the inclination inculcated in man to accomplish his roll in social and domestic life. We understand this roll better after we understand better nature's proceedings and tendencies.

Man is expected to play several parts, as follows: that of an animal, that of unity in the family, that of unity among his own people, and that of humanity in general.

Because nature gives to man a certain self-dependence in accomplishing his rolls (especially in society) therefore he may accomplish them imperfectly or not, according to the tendencies of nature on account of his ignorance of nature's proceeding. If man could perfectly understand nature's proceeding and its revenge (re-action) on individuals and society, on account of behavior not consonant to nature's tendencies and the imperfect accomplishment of rolls, he would not throw obstacles in its way; but because at the present time, man imperfectly knows nature's proceeding, therefore, to accomplish his rolls, he must have cultivated an inclination on the basis of natural feelings.

Since education is based on the knowledge of nature's laws, hence we must now present, some ideas of these laws so far as we need for this treatise.

THE LAWS OF NATURE.

The Universe, which is represented to us as existing extrinsically, may really exist as represented or may exist only in our mind as a summary of ideas affected by unknown causes. Or perhaps the Universe exists partly externally and partly internally, that is to say, externally, vibrating atoms may exist, to which we give certain determined forms in our minds. There is no difference for science whatever in either case. Suppose all phenomena are either objective or subjective; or partly subjective and partly objective, it still follows, that these phenomena are exhibited in conformity with certain stable laws, as testified by experience. (Experience may be objective or subjective in nature.)

All phenomena constitute a harmonious unity and totality, as testified to by our natural senses and minds on perqeiving the physical, the chemical, the biological and the social phenomena of the Universe.

lO INTRODUCTION.

The mechanism of the celestial bodies proves this very forcibly.

Unity and harmony in the Universe are the sign, that all particular and general data and all particular and general laws are based on the most general datum and law. Only such an arrangement of the Universe is possible; such a regulation helps very much the hunian mind in discovering nature's laws.

Science can entirely rely upon harmonious unity (totality and order, which are consequences of harmonious unity) in the Universe, even if this harmonious unity (totality and order) represented to our natural senses and minds would not exist externally, but would be imposed by our minds on the Universe. Suppose that our minds impose on the Universe the idea of harmonious unity, (totality and order) then our minds must have certain (external or internal) data, which are able to receive these ideas, because our minds cannot impose the idea of unity, totality and order on every datum. We see this clearly on the comparison . with works of human art. An artist modeling a statue of marble performs the harmonious unity, totality, order, etc., in marble to obtain as perfect a statue as possible. Suppose that the artist's mind imposes all these properties on the marble, which (properties) really do not exist in it; at all events he cannot impose these properties until the material will contain the necessary data required to receive them (properties). In this case the artist sculpturing the statue gradually performs the data. Hence the harmonious unity, totality, etc., in the statue as well as in the Universe will not be deceitful, because the human mind imposes them not on every datum, but on the certain and strictly determined data (which may be ideas). In other words the human mind imposes these ideas according to certain stable laws. Therefore, even if the idea of harmonious unity (totality and order) would be imposed by our minds on the Universe, science can entirely rely on it.

The stable laws above mentioned are ideas, which we create on the ground of experience. Experience teaches us, that these and not other data (causes) produce these, but not some other effects; and vice versa, these and not other effects are produced by these, but not by other causes. From this stability we construe in our minds the idea of nature's laws, which, although they do not represent to us the essence of the things, yet they represent the stable relations between causes and effects and among phenomena. These laws are the object of science.

The harmonious unity and totality in the Universe demonstrate that not only the certain, but all phenomena of the Universe must be regulated by nature's general laws. But, although the same general laws govern all phenomena, yet when they specify themselves in the special laws (determining the relations between immediate causes of effects) they are modifying (general laws) themselves according to the different characteristics of the phenomena. Therefore, although the same general laws are acting in all phenomena, but this action in one kind of phenomena is not the same as the action in another kind of phenomena, yet it is analogical. For instance the same general laws are acting in the physical, chemical, biological, and socialogical phenomena (for instance laws of motion) but this action (motion) is not the same in all these phenomena; it is only analogical. The greater the similarity between the different kinds of phenomena, the better is the analogy in the action of different laws.

Man discovers these laws in this manner: through the experience he acquaints himself with the immediate causes of a certain number of phenomena, and with the relations between these causes and their effects. In other words, man, through experience acquaints himself with some particular data and some particular laws governing these data. After such acquaintance the human mind tries to calculate more-general laws and data, because the knowledge of them helps man to understand better the entire construction of the Universe. But the understanding of the entire construction of the Universe helps to understand better the particular data and. particular laws in the Universe. On account of this, science being acquainted with some particular data and laws (governing these data) conjectures more-general laws and more-general data. These surmises are named hypotheses. With the help of hypotheses it is better to investigate and to understand the particular data (immediate causes of the phenomena) and particular laws. In the beginning man, on the basis of insufficient observation, calculates the curious surmises not only of the general data and laws, but even of the particular data and laws, because curious and wrong hypotheses of general data and laws are obstacles, which hinder the good understanding of the particular data arid laws.

The appearance of criticism (under different names) in the history of scientifical development, compels man to make new observations and discoveries of particular laws. When these discoveries are made in sufficient quantity, then attention is given again to the discovery of more-general laws and data. Again after a period of time when the surmises of general laws and data are carried too far and become the work of imagination, then it becomes necessary to return to the observation and investigation of particular laws and data.

The returns to particular laws and observations and the returns to the surmises of general laws, which (returns) clearly appear in the history of scientifical development, are not always made at once, wholly, but sometimes gradually and partially.

When particular and general laws are already discovered in- sufficient quantity, then the division of science into many special sciences follows, because science cannot investigate all phenomena at once and from different points of view, nor yet investigate at once all particular and general laws, because there is already too much material. On account of that science is divided into special sciences, in each of which only a certain quantity of phenomena from certain points of view, are considered; each science then investigates particular laws on the foundation of the observation. With the more-general laws ( and more-general data ) mental philosophy employs itself. Before the division of sciences mental philosophy employs itself with particular and general laws and data, but after the division of sciences it should employ itself with the general and more-general laws and data and with the Supreme law and datum. Special sciences in their investigations of particular laws and particular data must rely, themselves, on mental philosophy, that is, on the general laws and data. As to mental philosophy it must have for its foundation the particular laws and data discovered by special sciences.

Man, by being acquainted more perfectly with nature's proceedings, or with the particular and general laws of nature, can help nature better in the perfection of his existence as to his physical and intellectual development. He also perfects himself morally, because he acquires a more perfect idea of the Supreme source of laws, its uniformity and the most reasonable proceedings in nature. Knowing nature's proceeding, he more clearly perceives its revenge for not co-operating well with its tendencies and for failing in performing his rolls, which he is expected' to perform as an animal, as a member of a family, among his own people, as a member of humanity, and as a creature.

The perfection of the internal and external conditions of man's existence is his highest aim, because a greater degree of perfection of individuals causes a greater degree of perfection and happiness of society ; and a greater perfection of society helps individuals to obtain a still higher state of perfection. Which may be the last aim of. the perfection of society and individuals, to which (perfection) the same nature leads, is impossible to say on the grounds of experience. Reason supposes, that the final aim, to which man tends and in which he will find absolute perfection, must necessarily exist, because otherwise our natural tendency to the highest point of perfection and happiness would be unreasonable.

This perfection of the external and internal conditions of human existence is nothing else than helping nature in its proceeding; because, in order to be able to help it, it is necessary to know its laws, for this reason, the basis of all education is the knowledge of the general and particular laws of nature. Knowing these laws, man is able to aid nature in his own development and in the development of young people whose parent or teacher he may be. If intellectual education is the basis of all other education, we should consider, first, its fundamental rules.

Chapter I. Intellectual Education

TNTELLECTUAL education consists in understanding the proceedings of nature, or in other words, it consists in understanding nature's data, and the laws governing them. These laws appear to us through the processes of the different phenomena. We observe these processes, and on the basis of such obversation (and experiments) our reason is able to understand the particular and general laws governing nature, or nature's proceeding. The more one understands these proceedings of nature the more science he possesses.

Humanity acquires the acquaintance of data and the understanding of nature's laws according to certain stable laws, because the scientifical development in humanity is a phenomenon, and on the other hand, it is known, that each phenomenon

- " ' 20 must be regulated by certain stable laws of nature.

We are able to perceive from the history of scientifical development, that the natural proceeding is, that humanity commences its intellectual education from the observation of certain phenomena which strike the senses more forcibly. On the fou'ndation of a little observation of these phenomena, man has deduced some partic-' ular laws, and immediately after this he deduced or better surmised (very often curiously) the general laws and data of the Universe. After such speculation man turns again to the observation and the deduction of particular laws. This formulation of particular laws, man is more able to produce after he has some ideas of the general construction of the Universe or of general laws and data. And again, after such observation and investigation of particular laws man turns to the deduction of the more general laws and data, which he can surmise better on account of a more true performance of observation.

As I have mentioned before, such is the general law of scientifical development in humanity. It may be noticed here, that man deduces general laws and general data before the observations have been sufficiently extensive to warrant them. We might think, that such a proceeding is not very reasonable, because man often creates the wrong surmises of the general laws and data of the Universe. But nature does not proceed in the development of sciences in another manner. As we have mentioned before, it compels humanity, immediately after a little observation and deduction of some particular laws, to calculate the construction of the Universe or to calculate the general laws and data of nature. Why.'' Because speculations (even wrong) of general laws and causes (data) make man more capable to understand the particular laws and the particular data.

Such a proceeding should be imitated in the intellectual development of an individual. Therefore, in the intellectual education, one should, on the basis of some observation, investigate some particular laws and data. On the basis of these particular laws and data he must calculate of the general laws and data or of the general construction of the Universe. After such calculation he should again turn to the observation and investigation of particular laws and data. This second investigation of the particular laws and data should be more special and more strict. The observations and experiments should be broader. In this second investigation of the particular laws and data, the student, having ideas of the general construction of the Universe, will better understand the particular laws and data. After having knowledge of a larger number of particular laws and data, he must calculate again of the more-general laws and data. This second calculation o£the more-general laws and data should be more strict than the first calculation (of the general laws and data). This calculation may be more strict, because the student has a larger knowledge of the particular laws and data. After this second calculation of the general laws and data he should turn again to the observation (experiments) and investigation of particlar laws and data. This third investigation of the particular laws and data must be still broader than the second. The oftener one will repeat such turning the better will be his understanding of nature's proceedings, or the more nearly complete his science will be.

Learning should be commenced from the observation of these phenomena, >A?liich appeal more forcibly to our senses; these are physical phenomena. Up to this time it has been custortiary to proceed as follows : to commence by committing to memory the rules of grammar, scientifical symbols and formulas, dates, names in history, etc. All this material is crammed into heads without any or with little order. Such an intellectual education is not co-operative with nature's proceeding. Nature in the scientifical development of humanity proceeds in some other way. We should imitate it. Humanity commenced to learn, not by committing to memory rules of grammar, various formulas and dates, but by the observation of nature's phenomena. Scientifical rules and formulas were created thousands of years afterwards.

I don't deny that formulas and rules are of great value, but I wish to be understood, that the student should not be compelled to learn by heart those formulas but by experiments and mental calculation he should well understand nature's proceeding in the given phenomena. Rules representing in a brief way nature's proceedings, he should create with his own forces. The instructor's duty is to help the student in this. Such a manner of learning will be anil imitation of nature's proceeding in the scientifical development of humanity.

It is a question which phenomena a man, beginning to learn should observe first. I have mentioned before that learning should be commenced from the observation of those phenomena which strike our senses more forcibly; here I add that learning also should be commenced with the observation of those phenomena which tend to help one's reason to form the general ideas of the construction of the Universe. Therefore it should conjmence with the physical phenomena and particularly the movements of celestial bodies. It may be suggested, that it is too difficult to coinmence one's learning with the consideration of physical laws (on the foundation of experience) and mechanism of celestial bodies. Allow me to remark, that I do not propose to consider those things particularly, for the beginner and, I do not propose to treat the mechanism of celestial bodies with trigonometry, because this would be impossible in the commencement of learning. I only propose, on the foundation of some experience, to consider generally, ph5'sical phenomena in order to form in one's mind some general ideas of the construction of the Universe and of the forces governing it. Every child, commencing to calculate, is able to comprehend this. On the other hand, this greater utility will be obtained by such a proceeding, that, from the beginning, order and system of great scientifical value will be created in one's mind.

So far I have not mentioned anything referring to the learning of languages and religion. The learning of one's own language must be through practice, because humanity learns languages by hearing and speaking, which is practically. Let us imitate this manner of nature's proceeding. I do not say, that an instructor may not give some rules in teaching a language, but such rules should not be given in chaos, but should represent harmony and unity, because we must imitate nature.

the laws of which also constitute harmony and unity. Therefore in teaching a [language the instructor should first give the general ideas; the particular ideas, which he gives afterwards should be only an explanation and determination, in particular cases, of these general and fundamental ideas. Humanity first speaks in a manner that represents only imperfectly and simply its ideas and feelings, but after centuries it learns to use a good style and an artistical representation of its ideas and feelings. Thus the beginner should not be compelled to learn at once to speak eloquently and artistically, and he should not be compelled to learn the rules of grammar. This ought to be left for later instruction. In giving instructions in writing we should also imitate nature. Humanity represents its ideas ( from the beginning ) not by written words, but by different signs. Therefore the' learning of writing should be commenced with drawing different signs ( or objects ) representing ideas After this letters may be introduced.

As to the learning of religion the imitation of the natural proceeding will be this: before learning the different doctrines and rules of any particular religion it is necessary first to form a true idea of God ( the Supreme source of laws and basis of all causes ) . Sometimes' it happens, that even some of mature age know by heart many prayers an,d rules of their own religion, but have not a true idea of God. This is one of the causes of atheism. Such a man, as we have just referred to, hearing afterwards some atheistical phrases, loses all religion and even the principles of morality, because he has not a good idea of the Supreme source of laws and the general basis ( natural religion ) of all religions. Therefore, although we may teach young people in the beginning some rules ( very few) of a particular religion, yet in teaching all the forces of the instructor must tend to form in the student's mind a true idea of God. A good occasion to give the student a true idea of God as the Supreme and the most general law and basis of all causes and forces, would be when the instructor, on the foundation of experience, represents some physical laws and the mechanism of celestial bodies.

It is impossible to understand reasonably any particular religion without a good understanding of the natural religion, which is the basis of all religions. Humanity, before having and knowing any particular religion, certainly had ideas of natural religion first. The proper time for a reasonable learning of particular religion, is when one studies the history and literature of the world, and when he is acquainted with the general principles of the social sciences. (Religious education will be specially treated later on. )

When one has general ideas of the physical phenomena and mechanism of celestial bodies ( all this on the foundation of a certain experience ) it is necessary to begin the study of chemistry. This is a very natural way, because after one is acquainted with the, general plan of the construction of the Universe, he wishes to be better acquainted with the material of which the Universe is composed.

■The study of chemistry in the beginning should not be treated in a manner that students would be compelled to learn by heart many symbols and formulas of the composition of different bodies. This might produce a dislike for learning especially in a beginner and would not be helping nature in the intellectual development of man. Humanity did not become acquainted at once with the particular compositions, of bodies, but first it had only general ideas of them.

Therefore in studying chemistry it will be sufficient for a beginner to acquire, on the foundation of a little experience, general ideas of simple and composed bodies. In connection with chemistry the general , principles of geology in a descriptive manner, should be treated. Here the general principles of physical geography should be also represented.

When a student is acquainted with the general construction of the Universe, as to physical and chemical phenomena, then follows the study of botany. Such an order in intellectual education, I suppose, is very natural, because the development of vegetable life follows the, physical and chemical constitution and development of the earth. The student, at the beginning of his education, being acquainted with the construction of the Universe develops his mind, and forms an idea of order. The consequence of this will be, that he will care to learn systematically the principles of the other sciences, as, botany , physiology, etc.- With this preparation, the studying of botany which should follow now, will produce better intellectual development. The studying of botany should not be commenced in learning by heart the names of plants, but on the foundation of experience.

the instructor should represent the general principles of the life of plants and of the construction of their living organism together with a brief classification. The names of the principal parts and organs of plants will be memorized by observation, the repetition of different experiments, and by the explications of the instructor. The student, having general ideas of matter, physical and chemical forces, will reasonably study the physiology and anatomy of plants, because he will be able to understand the physical and chemical processes which have a place in the vegetable phenomena. Following this, descriptive botany should be presented in a brief ■vi^ay. The student, having some knowledge of the physiology and anatomy of plants, will base on this knowledge the classification of plants. It is to be remarked that applying many names of plants in descriptive botany produces a dislike in the beginner and compels him to learn forcibly by heart. But forcible learning by hea^-t always produces a bad influence to the intellectual development of man. In teaching descriptive botany, in the classification and division of plants, the natural proceeding of their development should be imitated, which is to say, that first the inferior organizations of plants should be represented and then the superior.