Epochs of the papacy, from its rise to the death of Pope Pius IX. in 1878

Front matter

President, White: library^ Cornell University.

Cornell University Library arV1732

Epochs of the papacy, from its rise to t

Preface

The title of this book, " Epochs of the Papacy,'' expresses, I trust, accurately, its nature and object. I propose to describe the rise, growth, and decline of the Papacy in successive epochs, every one of them representing some phase in her marvellous history from the earliest ages to the present time. The reader will observe that I am strongly opposed to the Papal claims. I do not mean to deny that occasionally the Popes have displayed virtues and excellences, or that during the dark ages the Papacy may have sometimes restrained the savage violence of the kingly or baronial aggressor. Sometimes, too, circumstances have rendered her less pernicious and less formidable than she was in former ages of her history. But still I must maintain that Rome is unchanged and unchangeable ; that, if she should regain her sway, she will persecute with the same violence as before ; and that the Papacy is, as

Vlll PREFACE.

it was in former times, the great corruption of Christianity. The contemplation of the career of such a power may bring before us some very striking lessons in the philosophy of history ; and may impress us with a deeper conviction of the value of that Reformation which has been a source of blessing to our own and other countries through many generations.

Chapter I

SPIRITUAL SUPREMACY — FROM THE RISE OF THE PAPACY TO THE YEAR 720, WHEN OBEDIENCE TO THE ROMAN BISHOP WAS FIRST PREACHED BY BONIFACE IN GERMANY.

St. Peter's presence at Rome probable, but his episcopate of twenty-five years untenable — Rise of the Papal power — The Pope's pretensions not admitted in the early ages — Causes of the growth of the Papacy — Series of obscure Popes broken by Leo the Great — The establishment of the Ostrogothic kingdom advantageous to the Popes, but the rule of the conqueror of the Ostrogoths, the Emperor Justinian, injurious to them — The noble character and influence of Gregory the Great — His writings show that the Popes now claim supremacy as successors of St. Peter— England converted by Augustine — The title of Universal Bishop conferred on Boniface III. by Phocas— The advancement of the Papacy aided by the rise of Mohammedanism in the time of Phocas — Causes of the slow growth of the Papal power for one hundred years after the death of Gregory the Great— The saints of Iona — Germany converted by Boniface, and the Papal supremacy first preached by him in that country ... ... ... ... ... p. I

Chapter II

TEMPORAL DOMINION — FROM THE ELECTION OF GREGORY II. IN 715 TO THE CONCORDAT OF WORMS IN 1 122.

The separation of the East from the West— Pepin and Charlemagne assist the Popes against the Lombards, and give them a principality —The greatness of Charlemagne — His coronation by Leo III. — Creation of the Holy Roman Empire — The design of the Popes to

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usurpdominion over kings— The degradation of the Papacy —Otto I. , Otto II., Otto III., and Henry III. appoint Popes, and attempt to reform the Papacy — The nature of the connection between the Papacy and the empire — Alteration in the mode of the election of the Popes — The vast designs and energy of Gregory VII. — His struggle with Henry IV. about the right of investiture — Account of a similar contest in England between Anselm and Henry I. — Concordat of Worms — Steady growth of the Papal power, which was aided by the power of excommunication and interdict, the " Donation of Constantine," the "False Decretals," and the Crusades p. 20

Chapter III

REVERSES AND VICTORIES — FROM THE CONCORDAT AT WORMS IN 1 122 TO THE DEATH OF CELESTINE III. IN II98.

The conflicting claims of the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, and the warfare between them— Suspension of the strife — Bernard as a maker of Popes, a preacher of Crusades, and a combatant of heretics — Abelard, the great dialectician, and Arnold of Brescia, the great anti-Papal champion of the age — The noble character of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa — His disputes with Pope Adrian IV. — Alexander III. and the Lombard League — The conflict of Frederick with him, and his humiliation before him at Venice — Humiliation of Henry II. of England before the tomb of Becket at Canterbury — Pause in the contest between the Empire and the Papacy p. 75

Chapter IV

THE NOONDAY OF PAPAL DOMINION — FROM THE ELECTION OF INNOCENT III. IN II98 TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS IN 1282.

The vast schemes of Innocent III. — His triumphs over various monarchs — Occasional beneficial exercise of his temporal supremacy — Innocent guilty of great public crimes — The crusade against the Albigenses — The fourth Lateran Council — Reflections on the pontificate and policy of Innocent — The usurpations of the Popes on the liberties of national Churches — The Mendicant Orders a means of Papal influence — The struggle of Frederick II. with Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. — Reflections upon it — The death of Frederick, and the subsequent extirpation of his race in his grandson Conradin, beheaded at Naples by Charles of Anjou — Full triumph of the Papacy over the Empire — Gregory X. endeavours to unite the Greek and Latin Churches, and to engage the nations of Europe

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in a Crusade — History of the separation of the two Churches — General observations on the Crusades — The Sicilian Vespers, p. 95

Chapter V

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECLINE OF THE PAPACY — FROM THE SICILIAN VESPERS IN I282 TO THE DEATH OF BONIFACE VIII. IN I303.

Reflections on the Papal power — The time of its decline — The cause ot that decline — The Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France — His character — Other causes of the decline, including the contest between the Papacy and the Empire, Interdicts, the partiality shown to the Mendicants, the denunciations of its best friends, the preaching of the Albigenses, Peter de Bruys, Henry the Deacon, and the Waldenses — Sketch of the history of the Waldenses — Celestine V., the hermit Pope — Great decline of the Papacy under Boniface VIII. p. 145

Chapter VI

AVARICE AND SCHISM, WITH THEIR CONSEQUENCES • — FROM THE DEATH OF BONIFACE VIII. IN 1303 TO THE CLOSE OF THE COUNCIL OF BASLE IN 1449.

The Pontificate of Benedict XI. — The causes and the beginning of the residence of the Popes at Avignon in 1305 — Clement V. obliged by his master, Philip of France, unjustly to dissolve the Order of Knights Templars, and to arraign the memory of Boniface VIII. — The poet Dante attacks the Papacy — The struggle of John XXII. with the empire — His heresy as to the beatific vision — The avarice of Clement V. and John XXII. — The causes of the loss of the influence of the Mendicants — Their dispute with John XXII. injurious to the Papacy — The licentious splendour of the Court of Avignon, especially during the Pontificate of Clement VI. — Consequences of the residence in that city — John Wiclif — Piers Ploughman's Vision — Ineffectual attempts to reform — Rienzi — Return of Gregory XI. to Rome, and end of the "Babylonish captivity'' — The commencement and progress of the Papal Schism — The Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle — Attempted union between the Greek and Latin Churches — John Huss and Jerome of Prague — Causes of the failure of the Councils to reform the Church — The Hussite war ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... p. 176

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Chapter VII

the further decline of the papacy — from the close of the council of basle in 1449 to the publication of luther's propositions against indulgences in 1517.

The Pontificate of Nicholas V.— The failure of Pius II. to rouse the nations to a crusade a proof of the decline of the Papacy — The Popes as temporal princes — Their nepotism — The warlike schemes of Julius II. — The vices and crimes of various Popes, including especially Alexander VI. — The revival of learning— Providential ' design of the preservation of the Greek Empire — The effects of the . study of Greek literature in Europe — The invention of printing — General expectation of a convulsion — Failures to reform the world and the Church — Connection between the attempts to reform in past times and the Reformation under Luther— Witnesses for the ' truth found in all lands just before his appearance, including Savonarola, Reuchlin, and Erasmus — Signs that the time had come — Reasons for Germany being selected as the theatre of the struggle with Rome — The strength of Rome more apparent than real — Martin Luther nails his propositions as to Indulgences to the church gate at Wittemberg. ... ... ... ... p. 238

Chapter VIII

THE REFORMATION — FROM 1517 TO THE DEATH OF PAUL IV. IN ISS9-

Luther — The election of Charles V. to the Empire — Contest between him and Francis I. — Eck's controversy with Luther — Luther burns the Papal Bull — Luther at Worms and Wartburg — Connection between political complications and the advancement of the Reformation — Death and character of Leo X. — Adrian of Utrecht — The political schemes of Clement VII. — The sack of Rome by the general of Charles favourable to the Reformation — Alliance between Clement and Charles at Barcelona — ■ The cruelties of Clement on his capture of Florence, with his character— The German princes protest against the arbitrary Edict of Spires — The Confession of Augsburg — The Protestants in a dangerous situation, from which they are delivered by the invasion of the Turkish Sultan — Charles obliged to conclude a peace with them — The divorce of Henry VIII. — Death of Clement — Election and character of Paul III. — Colloquy at Ratisbon — Treaty of Crespy between Charles and Francis— The Council of Trent — Hostilities between Charles and the Protestants which end in their defeat — Treachery of Maurice of Saxony — The political schemes of Paul III. advance the Reform-

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ation— Julius III. — The Emperor obliged to conclude the treaty of Passau— Death of Charles— Progress of the Reformation— The English Reformation owes its origin to human weakness — Paul IV. the worst enemy to Romanism in England p. 278

Chapter IX

THE PAPAL REACTION — FROM THE ELECTION OF PIUS IV. IN 1559 TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA IN 1648.

Spain and Italy always steadfast in their allegiance to the Pope — The countries of Europe where the Church of Rome was victorious — Causes of the Reaction— (1) The Inquisition; (2) The reform of the old and the establishment of new Orders, including especially the Order of the Jesuits, of which a full description is given ; (3) The Council of Trent ; (4) The divisions among Protestants ; (5) The lukewarmness of Protestant, and the zeal of Roman Catholic, Sovereigns ; (6) The improved character and increased zeal of the Popes — Sixtus V. and his schemes, especially his additions to the taxation of the Papal States with a view to the advancement of the Reaction — Tremendous warfare between Romanism and the Reformation — Cruelties of Philip II. and Alva in the Netherlands — Resistance of the inhabitants under William of Orange — Various events of the struggle — Its end and results — The Reaction in France— The massacre of St. Bartholomew — The wars of the League — Rome nearly successful in her struggle for universal empire — Causes of her failure — Conversion and coronation of Henry IV. — Countries and States in which Rome failed or succeeded — -Death and character of Philip II. — Pause in the strife — Beginning of the Thirty Years' "War — Defeat and exile of Frederick, who accepted the crown of Bohemia — Failure of attempts to restore Frederick — Designs of the Emperor Ferdinand against German Protestantism — Gustavus Adolphus comes to its rescue — His character — His difficulties — Treaty with Richelieu — His design sanctioned by Urban VIII. — Subsequent great victories and death of Gustavus — End of Religious War — Peace of Westphalia P- 335

Chapter X

THE DECAY OF THE PAPACY — FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA IN 1648 TO THE ABOLITION OF THE ORDER OF THE JESUITS IN 1773- The power of the Papacy restrained by Spain and Germany, and by Louis XIV. in France — The four Gallican Articles — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — Religious views of Jansen — His system

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adopted at Port-Royal— Description of that monastery and its inmates— Dealings of the Popes, the Jesuits, and Louis XIV. with Port-Royal till the abolition of the monastery— Causes of the decay of the Papal power — War of the Spanish succession, and its effect on the Papacy — Change in the relative positions of the States of Europe an evidence of the decline of the Papacy — Extravagant claims of Benedict XIII. — Excellence and popularity of Benedict XIV. — Clement XIII. opposed to concessions— His vain attempt to save the Jesuits — The great worth of Clement XIV. — He suppresses the Order of the Jesuits ... ... ... P- 4X4

Chapter XI

THE WOES OF THE PAPACY — FROM 1 773 TO THE DEATH OF PIUS IX. IN 1878.

The causes of the French Revolution— Its retributive character generally, but especially in regard to the Church — Character of Pius VI. — The innovations of Joseph of Austria — The humiliation, spoliation, captivity, and death of Pius — Election of Pius VII. — Concordat between him and ,Napoleon — Coronation of the latter by him — Seizure of Rome and arrest of the Pope by Napoleon — His design in regard to the Papacy — Concordat at Fontainbleau between him and the Pope, afterwards cancelled by his overthrow — Restoration of Pius — Present prosperity of the Papacy more apparent than real — Misgovernment and tyranny of the Austrians, the Bourbons, and Pius VII. — The Papacy assailed by Italian patriotism — Growing opposition of Italy to the Papacy — Oppressive government of Gregory XVI. — The Popes partly successful in regaining their ascendency — Early reforms and Liberalism of Pius IX. — His subsequent change and flight from Rome — His restoration — The Virgin's Immaculate Conception — Count Cavour and Victor Emmanuel— Deliverance of Italy by Louis Napoleon— /The Pope deprived of almost all his territories — The Vatican Council and Papal Infallibility — The abolition of the Temporal Power — Close of the career of Pius — His character and schemes — The present position and future prospects of the Papacy ... ... p. 442

Introduction

In speaking of the Papacy we must remember that we are speaking of an institution, the rise of which is to be sought in the depths of a remote antiquity. " The history of the Church of Rome," to use the words of Lord Macaulay, "joins together the two great ages of human civilization. No other institution is left standing which carries the mind back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose from the Pantheon, and when cameleopards and tigers bounded in the Flavian amphitheatre. The proudest royal houses are but of yesterday when compared with the line of the Supreme Pontiffs. That line we trace back in an unbroken series, from the Pope who crowned Napoleon in the nineteenth century to the Pope who crowned Pepin in the eighth; and far beyond the time of Pepin the august dynasty extends, till it is lost in the twilight of fable. The republic of Venice came next in antiquity. But the republic of Venice was modern when compared with the Papacy ; and the republic of Venice is gone and the Papacy remains."1 The antiquity described in these eloquent words has been urged as a strong argument in favour of the extravagant pretensions of the Church of Rome. When we converse with those who maintain that the Bishop of Rome, as the successor of St. Peter, is the supreme teacher and governor of the Church, we are confronted with the assertion that his claims have always been recognized by a large proportion

Essay on " Ranke's History of the Popes."

XVI INTRODUCTION.

of the inhabitants of Christendom. We are told that we cannot point to the time when this supremacy commenced ; that it must, therefore, be coeval with the foundation of the Christian Church ; and that it must be the gift of the Divine Teacher for the guidance and instruction of His people. Now we are prepared to meet this assertion with a direct negative ; to show that for a long time this claim on behalf of the Pope was altogether unknown; that when it was advanced it was very strongly opposed; that this opposition was continued, as I shall show in the following work, through the ages ; and that the Reformation in England and Germany was the end of a long struggle between the Pope and the inhabitants of those countries who denied his claim upon their allegiance. The titles " Pope " and " Supreme Pontiff," which Lord Macaulay uses to designate the Bishop of Rome, may remind us of the growth of the Papal claims. Many of the Fathers inform us that the pastors in charge of flocks, embracing laity, deacons, and presbyters, were called " Chief Priests," " Supreme Pontiffs," " Princes of the Priests," so that the title " Supreme Pontiff" did not constitute a peculiar title of the Bishop of Rome.1 Bingham also gives many instances to show that " every Bishop was anciently called ' Papa,' ' Father,' or ' Pope.' " 2 Baronius, too, a zealous asserter of the Papal supremacy, admits that, in old times, every venerable presbyter was called Papa ; that the name was common to all bishops for 850 years, but was attached especially to the Bishop of Rome ; and that it continued to be the designation of all of them till Hildebrand, in a Council

1 "Anacleti Papa;,'- epist. ii. col. 521, C. Paris, 1671 ; "Ambros. Opera," torn. iii. " Comment, in Epist ad Ephes.," cap. iv. col. 504, K. Paris, 1661; "Hieron. Opera," torn. ii. epist. xxviii. ad Asellam, Fol. Paris, 1706 ; "Tertull. Opera," torn. ii. De Pudicit. cap. i.

2 Bingham's "Antiquities of the Christian Church," book ii. chapter ii. sect, vii., S taker's Edit. London, 1840.

INTRODUCTION. XV11

at Rome in the year 1073, decreed that there should be only one Pope in the whole world.1 We are reminded, then, by this appropriation of the title, of the persevering efforts of the Bishops of Rome to establish a supremacy over the Churches of Christendom.

We can account, in a very simple manner, for the advancement and acceptance of the Papal claims, without having recourse to the supposition that the supremacy was a Divine gift, which we hold to be absolutely erroneous. The minds of men were tossed about on a sea of uncertainty. They longed for an infallible judge who would remove their doubts and explain their difficulties. This desire aided the Popes in their design of reigning with despotic sway over the nations. We may illustrate this matter by a reference to history. The people of France had seen the evils which flow from disunion. The great vassals of that country had usurped their territories, and barely submitted to the nominal authority of the monarch. A strong desire was thus awakened for the union of the nation under a powerful central authority, because otherwise it would be unable to offer an effectual resistance to the armies of the invader. The monarch, by steady perseverance, after long ages of conflict, was able to consolidate his power on the ruins of the authority of the feudal oligarchy. At length, the whole power of France, legislative and administrative, centred in the person of Louis XIV. Thus the Pope, as we shall see in the following history, aided by circumstances, and by the strong desire of men for an infallible arbiter of controversies, steadily persevered, till at length he was able to reign supreme over the Churches and monarchs of Christendom. Just also as the central autocratic power in France has been gradually broken by various revolutions, by long and bloody conflicts, which Burke foresaw when, with prophetic prescience, he said that the commonwealth of France may 1 Baronii, "Martyrol. Roman.," pp. 33, 34, Colonise, 1603.

XV1U INTRODUCTION.

be obliged to pass through a great variety of forms, " and, in all its transmigrations, to be purified by fire and blood," * so, as we shall see in the following history, the fabric of Papal domination has been undermined, and stone after stone has been dislodged from the massive battlements.

Those who were anxious to establish the supremacy of the Bishops of Rome would, of course, make Holy Scripture the foundation of their superstructure. They allege that passage of St. Matthew xvi., where, after Peter had uttered the confession, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," our Lord thus spoke to him, " I say also unto thee, that thou art Peter (IltVpoc), and upon this rock (k-rcl Tairt/ rrj Trirpq.) I will build My Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." They assert that St. Peter is here described by Christ as the Rock on which He would build His Church ; that a rock is a most significant emblem of duration, and must last as long as the Church which is built upon it ; that there is here a promise that St. Peter is to have successors ; and that these are the Bishops of Rome who are to rule His Church till time shall give place to eternity. They allege, as further proof, the commission given by our Lord to Peter after His resurrection ; " Feed my lambs ; " " Feed my sheep." 2 Now we affirm, in direct opposition to them, that the end and aim of the first passage are not Peter but Christ ; 3 that the plain meaning of our Lord's words is that on this Rock, i.e. on Himself, the Son of Man, whom Peter had just confessed to be the Son of God, He would build His Church, which shall stand uninjured and indestructible; that since St.

* " Reflections on the Revolution in France." 2 John xxi. 15-17.

3 See the Bishop of Lincoln's commentary on the passage. The substance of his remarks is here given.

INTRODUCTION. XIX

Peter had owned his Lord, He would own him as "Peter," as a living stone hewn out of and built upon Him, the living Rock, like the other Apostles, who with him are called the " Twelve Foundation Stones of the Church ; " * that in the following passages, where He is speaking of Himself, we have our Lord's own authority for the assertion that the words, " upon this rock," can be applied only to Himself: — "Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up ; " 2 "Whosoever shall fall on this stone shall be broken ; " 3 and, " If any man eat of this bread, he shall live for ever." i We say also that the word " Rock " is applied in the Old Testament only to the Almighty; s that, in the New Testament, he who builds on Christ's words builds upon a rock ; 6 and that St. Paul says, " Other foundation can no man lay than that which lieth (by its own act as the foundation), which is Jesus Christ" — Jesus as Man, and Christ as the Son of God, — which is St. Peter's confession in this passage ; and that He says again, " That Rock was Christ." 7 We add that the promise, "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven," plainly refers to the opening of the kingdom of heaven, or of the dispensation of the gospel, which was fulfilled in the case of Peter, when he first opened the door to the Jews after the wonderful descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost ; and still more when he first opened the door to the Gentiles, preaching the gospel to Cornelius, and baptizing him and his household. The words, " Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven," plainly convey no greater power to St. Peter than to the

1 Revel, xxi. 14. 2 John ii. 19. 3 Matt. xxi. 44.

4 John vi. 51.

5 I Sam. ii. 2 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 2, 3, 32, 47 ; Psalm xxviii. I ; xxxi. 2, 3 ; xlii. 9; lxxi. 3 ; Ixxviii. 35.

6 Matt. vii. 24, 25 ; Luke vi. 48. ? 1 Corinth, a. 4.

INTRODUCTION.

other disciples, for St. John informs us that our Lord said to them all, "Whose soever smsye remit, they are remitted unto them; and whose soever sins ye retain, they are retained." * "The words were addressed to Peter as representing by his faith, by his office, and by his acts, all the apostles and their successors." 2 The reference here plainly is to the power given to them to bind or loose the chains of those who are in bondage to sin and Satan. Our Lord could not have intended to give one apostle a supremacy over the rest, or over the whole Church, for He tells them that He is the Vine and that they all are branches ; 3 that He is their Master, and that they all are brethren. * He pronounced also a distinct condemnation upon them, because they disputed among themselves for the pre-eminence, when He said, " He that is greatest among you, let him be as the younger; and he that is chief, as he that doth serve." He reminds them also " that the kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them (the Gentiles), but it should not be so with them."3 He placed therti also on an equality when He said, "Ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel." 6 And again He says, "Be not ye called Rabbi, for one is your Master, even Christ; and all ye are brethren. And call no man your father upon the earth : for one is your Father, which is in heaven. Neither be ye called masters : for one is your Master, even Christ." i

If the sovereignty of St. Peter were a reality, it is impossible that it should not have been acknowledged in the Church of the Apostles. Even if some time were required to accustom the minds of men to the idea that the Bishop of Rome inherited all the power and privileges of St. Peter, still it must be present in the Church ; the germ of the idea

* John xx. 23.

3 See the Bishop of Lincoln's "Theophilus Anglicanus," p. 220.

3 John xv 1-5. 4 Matt, xxiii. 8.

s Luke xxii. 24-26. 6 Matt. xix. 28. 1 Matt, xxiii. 8-10.

INTRODUCTION. xxi

must be found. Now it is perfectly evident that St. Peter did not regard himself as invested with this supremacy. He plainly understood that our Lord singled him out from the other disciples when He gave him the direction, " Feed my lambs," " Feed my sheep ; " not that He might give him the supremacy over them, but that He might comfort him after his fall with the assurance of forgiveness, and that he held the same place as before among the apostles ; for he directly discountenances the idea of superiority when he says, "The elders which are among you I exhort, who am a fellow-elder; " and when he censures in another verse the assumption of it, " Neither as being lords over God's heritage, but being examples to the flock." *

The whole attitude of St. Paul shows very plainly that his apostleship was, in his view, on a perfect equality with that of St. Peter to the Jews : "The gospel of the uncircumcision was committed to me, as the gospel of the circumcision was to Peter." 2 Again, it has been said that St. Paul "went up to Jerusalem to see Peter." 3 The presumption would be that he hoped by his means to obtain an increase of authority. But_this notion is directly discountenanced by St. Paul's own words: — "Paul, an apostle, not of men, neither by man, but by Jesus Christ, and God the Father;"* and again he says, " I neither received it of man, neither was I taught it, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ ;"s and again St. Paul calls himself " not a whit behind the very chiefest apostles ; " 6 and he " withstood him (St. Peter) to the face, because he was to be blamed." i He says that the Church is built upon the "foundation of the apostles and prophets," not on one apostle, " Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-stone, in whom all the building, fitly framed together, groweth unto an holy temple in the

1 I Peter v. I, 3. * Galat. ii. 7.