The great schools of England; an account of the foundation, endowments, and discipline of the chief seminaries of learning in England; including Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. Paul's, Charter-House Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, etc., etc

Front matter

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Cornell Ittitteratta ffiibrarg

Dttiaca. New lark

Preface

The present compilation was intended in the first instance to consist of little more than a reprint of some articles on our chief Public Schools, which appeared a few years since in a leading newspaper. The publication of the Evidence given before the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Revenues and Management, &c. of those Schools, and of the admirable Report upon that Evidence, rendered a modification of the original plan of the book indispensable. The work accordingly has been entirely remodelled and considerably expanded, and now supplies, it is believed, a variety of information regarding the Institutions it treats of, not devoid of practical value to those interested in the Educational agencies of the country, and not elsewhere accessible in a collected form.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Large Quadrangle, Eton College . . Frontispiece.

Audit-room in Winchester College 62

School-room in Winchester College 75

Entrance Gateway, Westminster School 116

School-room of St. Peter's, Westminster 122

St. Paul's School 164

School-room of St. Paul's School 177

Merchant Taylors' School 210

School-room of Merchant Taylors' School ... 223

School-room of Charter-house 273

Harrow School 302

School-room of Harrow School 311

Rugby School , 350

Chapel of Rugby School 359

The Royal Grammar School, Shrewsbury .... 404

School-room of Shrewsbury School 415

Library, Shrewsbury School 416

Dormitory of Christ's Hospital 442

Grammar School, Christ's Hospital 462

ERRATA.

Page 62 line 14, lor Boccacio read Boccaccio.

63 6, for Crescy read Cressy.

65 14, for function read office.

74 14, for turn unto Him read live unto Him.

74 note, line 4 from bottom, for dinner, London read dinner in London,

80 note 3, line 6 from bottom, for diliquentes, read deliquentes.

86 note 1, line 4 from bottom, for stock, interest read stock, the interest

Introduction

Nothing out of England corresponds to or resembles the English Endowed School. " No original, no counterpart, nor copy of it is to be found abroad ; and it bears no resemblance to any foreign institution, under whatever denomination, where boys are assembled for the purpose of education." 1

In France education has the centralized and centralizing character of all things French. With the exception of the Military and Veterinary Schools, the Schools of Art and of Mines, all organizations, and instruments for instruction, are under the supreme control of the University at Paris, which is not an institution for instruction, but only for superintendence. It is, in fact, a council with the Minister of Public Instruction at its head. There is no university, properly so called, in France, except that at Strasburg, the capital of Alsace, formerly a German province, and still animated by the German spirit. Instead of Universities, France has Academies ; that is, Faculties for Special Sciences. As, for Catholic Theology, at Paris, Lyons, Ait, Bordeaux, Rouen, Toulouse ; for Lutheran Theology, at Strasburg ; for reformed or Calvinistic Theology, at Montauban ; for Jurisprudence, at Paris, Ait, Dijon, Grenoble, Caen, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasburg, and Toulouse; for Medicine, at Paris, Montpellier, and Strasburg ; for Mathematics and the Natural Sciences, at Paris, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Toulouse, and Strasburg; for Literature*

1 Quarterly Review, No. 231.

b x Introduction.

at Paris, Toulouse, Strasburg, Dijon, and Besangon. Many French Theological students are also educated at Geneva. For what on the Continent is termed secondary instruction, France has provision by means of three hundred and fiftyeight Colleges, or Gymnasia, of which forty-six are supported by the State, and the others by the cities to which they respectively belong. In the primary Schools, for the instruction of the people, the standard and the practice are as low as can well be conceived. What are called the Romanic nations stand much behind the so-termed Germanic nations in the matter of popular education; and it is not praising France much to say that, in this respect, she has the advantage of Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Guizot, Villemain, Cousin, and other statesmen, under Louis Philippe, made commendable exertions for the enlightenment of their poorer countrymen, but the advent of the Empire appears to have repelled the movement, and now, out of nearly forty millions of inhabitants, only three millions of children attend school.

Education in no country is less a monopoly or a privilege than in Germany. In the Protestant provinces, the children, almost universally — and in the Catholic provinces, in great majority — attend school. Institutions for education are of the most various kind ; and at the head of them all are twenty-four universities, with two thousand teachers and twenty thousand students. It cannot be surprising, therefore, if Germany is unrivalled in Classical acquirements, in Scientific Theology, and in Speculative Philosophy.

The intellectual culture of Denmark is of a high order. It has already been vigorously promoted by the Government, which has done all in its power for Art, Science, and general intelligence. The two chief Universities are that at Copenhagen and that at Kiel. At the former there is an average attendance of eleven or twelve hundred students. For a

Introduction. xi

population of a million and a half, there exist nearly three thousand primary Schools. Recent calamitous events have, however, so changed the aspect of the country, that these estimates are applicable rather to what Denmark was than to what Denmark is.

In Sweden, everybody is able to read, nearly everybody to write, and the knowledge of the Catechism, and of Biblical History, is all but universal. Many of the primary Schools are conducted upon the Lancasterian plan. The two Universities are those of Lund and of Upsala. For a country so comparatively poor as Sweden, the number of educational, of learned, and of scientific institutions, is marvellous.

In Norway, there is but one University, that of Christiania. Learned institutions are not numerous, and scientific culture is not advanced. Popular instruction, however, is widely diffused. Most of the Norwegians can read and write. The children are taught either by their parents or by travelling schoolmasters, the sparseness of the population seldom permitting stationary Schools. Though well-informed, the Norwegians are a singularly bigoted people. They have a rooted antipathy to Roman Catholics, and they altogether forbid the residence of Jews in Norway.

In Holland, the three Universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, have long enjoyed a high reputation. Of preparatory Schools for these Universities there are sixty-eight, besides two institutions at Amsterdam and Deventer, which have nearly all the characteristics of universities. There are Training Schools, Naval Schools, and Schools for Marine Architecture. Schools for a variety of professional branches also abound; Collections and Libraries; and Societies and Unions for the promotion of Science and Art. Though apparently as phlegmatic as their climate is heavy, the Dutch, to their honour, stand pre-eminent in knowledge.

b2 xii Introduction.

The population of Switzerland consists of three unequal elements — Germanic, French, and Italian, of which the Germanic is predominant. Much, during the last thirty years, has been effected both by individuals and by the State for the moral and intellectual development of Switzerland. The Swiss have even been educational reformers. The fame of Fellenberg's Agricultural School, in the Canton of Berne, has penetrated all countries ; and the greatest modern regenerator of education, Pestalozzi, was a Swiss. At Basle a University has long existed ; at Zurich and Berne two additional Universities have been established. The Academies at Geneva, Lausanne, and Neufchatel, are equivalent to Universities, though they do not adopt the name ; an education at the Academy of Geneva offers advantages of which few English parents are aware.

It was once designed that there should be a grand University for the whole Swiss Confederation. The scheme has not been carried into operation, but a Polytechnic School of the same comprehensive character has been resolved on, and is probably already organized. In the cantons of Switzerland, the people being all soldiers, the expenses of a standing army are saved. Hence the Governments are enabled to spend a larger sum in proportion on the education of the people than can be spared in other European States. In an educational point of view, the Roman Catholic cantons are confessedly and conspicuously inferior to the Protestant No less, in general culture, the Protestant cantons excel the Roman Catholic. But it is remarkable that while nearly all the Swiss eminent in science have been Protestants, Roman Catholic Switzerland has produced artists, and Italian Switzerland though an insignificant part of the whole country, has sent forth more sculptors, painters, and architects than all the other cantons combined.

Introduction. xiii

Education in Belgium is not in a satisfactory condition. The Roman Catholic clergy have obtained, or at least have aimed at possessing, almost a monopoly of education. Against this ambition the Government and the liberal politicians of the country have had strenuously to contend. As to popular enlightenment, Belgium stands immeasurably below Holland: The two National Universities are those of Ghent and Liege, but the Roman Catholic clergy erected, soon after the Revolution which separated Belgium from Holland, a University at Louvain, which is under the patronage of the Virgin Mary, and where the strictest ecclesiastical discipline prevails. As a counteracting agency, the liberal politicians organized a Free University in Brussels.

In Belgium the Jesuits have four Seminaries. Reflecting that education should be a grand national fact, into which no sectarian element ought to intrude, the condition of Belgium in this respect is infinitely to be lamented. **

Italy offers the striking spectacle of a country" which has done more for the civilization of the world than any other, but where enlightenment, even in the most restricted sense, has never reached the minds and homes of the people. The sublimest educational agencies have abounded — still abound — but the Italian peasant has received no inculcation beyond that imparted to him by the illimitable beauty of the climate and by the gorgeous pomp of his religion. But as the political regeneration of Italy has begun, the intellectual regeneration will doubtless soon follow.

In a country so rigidly and exclusively Catholic as Spain, it is not easy for popular instruction to penetrate. Out of sixteen millions of Spaniards, perhaps not much more than the tenth part can either read or write. Yet Spain has ten Universities, and at one of them — that of Madrid — seven to eight thousand students attend,. /There are ample means, therefore, for the xiv Introduction.

creation of a learned class, though multitudes are sunk in ignorance, indolence, and superstition. Still, for education, as for other important things, there has been a considerable revival in Spain ; and, as the Spaniards are a nobly gifted race, they may become, ere many- years are passed, as enlightened as they are valiant and chivalrous.

Portugal is a country where popular education can scarcely be said to exist. There are some learned institutions at Lisbon, and there is a University at Coimbra. But culture was far more general when Portugal was a great conquering country than it is now. In Portugal there is more tolerance than in Spain; but Portugal is as much deprived as Spain of those literary, and especially scientific influences, which mould almost more than politics, the destinies of England, Germany, and France.

The modern history of Poland is a painfully interesting one. Few, however, whose sympathies have been awakened for Poland's woes, are aware that the intellectual development of this down-trodden people presents much that is impressive and admirable. The Polish language is highly perfected and singularly melodious; and the Polish literature is exceedingly rich. With the introduction of Christianity, nine hundred years ago, the civilization of Poland began. For centuries her culture differed little from that of other countries lying more to the south-west. But the time arrived when Poland was the most enlightened and tolerant country in Europe. At that period many remarkable works were written by the Poles in Latin. Then arose the national literature, properly so called, and down to our own day this literature has been fruitful in masterpieces, of which the works of Mickiewicz, a modern poet of the highest rank, are among the chief. In 1773, a Ministry of Public Instruction was established in Poland, the first of the kind the world had ever known, and Polish patriots laboured

Introduction. xv

hard to give their countrymen the light of knowledge. With the supremacy of Russia, however, reaction and retrogression began, and under Nicholas, the most important educational institutions were unhappily suppressed.

Since the time of Peter the Great, education in Russia has undergone remarkable vicissitudes. Peter attempted to lessen by barbarous means the barbarity of his people. Catherine II. interested, or affected to interest herself, in popular instruction. Alexander I. in his earlier and better days, was perhaps more serious in the matter. But Nicholas, dreaming only of Russia's geographical expansion and military growth, threw education back, as far as it was in his power to do so. Education, indeed, on a grand scale could never co-exist with serfdom, and even if the abolition of serfdom answers all the expectations which it has aroused, its blessings, those of education included, can be only slowly evolved. There are in Russia seven Universities ; but the other important educational institutions are mainly designed to achieve military purposes.

Wherever the colonial empire of England extends, education makes more progress even than in England itself. In the United States of America, education is the general heritage of the people, though the ideal of education is certainly not of the loftiest kind.

In Modern Greece where, in harmony with the glory and the greatness of Ancient Greece, education should be not merely universal, but nobler than everywhere else, it is deplorably neglected.

Scotland is a well-educated country, but while the mass of Scotchmen are perhaps better educated than the mass of Englishmen, the academical standard is much lower in Scotland than in England.

In education, Ireland resembles Scotland, England, or Bel-

Kvi Introduction.

gium, according as the Presbyterian, the Anglican, or the Roman Catholic, element predominates.

The most cursory survey of mental cultivation in other lands is sufficient to show, as we have said, that nothing elsewhere presents affinities to English Universities or to the great Endowed Schools. The peculiarity of both is in their combination of the Cloistral, the Aristocratic, the Classical, afrd the National. To make this more clearly understood, it may be desirable to add to the above outline of the present state of education in various countries, a glance at the development of Schools.

There is no trace of Schools, in the popular sense of the word, till after the introduction of Christianity. Their first real founder is supposed to have been Charlemagne. He erected educational institutions for all classes, in all parts of his vast dominions, and he invited the co-operation of the priesthood ; but his death and the anarchy which followed defeated the noble purpose he had in view.

Two classes of Schools, however, had a better fate than befell the rest— the Cloistral Schools — Scholcz Claustrales, or Monastics, and the Cathedral Schools. The former, indeed, were not so much created as modified by Charlemagne, for they had existed from the beginning of the fifth century. The Cloistral Schools and the Cathedral Schools appear to have differed little from each other, except that the latter were under the immediate supervision of the Bishops, and that their teachers were the Canons. To the time of Charlemagne education was limited to the so-called Trivium, including Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectics. By his command, the Quadrivium was added, consisting of Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. The Trivium and Quadrivium comprehended together the Seven Free Arts.

The chief book employed in the Cloistral Schools was the

Introduction, xvii

Satiricon of Martianu's Capella, who lived towards the end of the fifth century. This work is a kind of allegorical encyclopaedia, wherein prose and verse are whimsically intermingled. With much that is chaotic and crude, the Satiricon contains notions somewhat in advance of the author's age. For example, it presents the germ of the Copernicari theory of the universe. Two or more works of Cassiodorus, who died about the middle of the sixth century, were also used in these Schools. The superintendent of a Cloistral School was called Rector, or Scholastkus ; each of the inferior teachers was termed Magister.

At the beginning of the ninth century, these Monastic Schools were divided into Internal and External; Scholx Interiores, and Scholce Exteriores or Canonicce. The former admitted those children who were dedicated to a "monastic life and who were called Oblati or Donati; the latter those who were to be employed in secular affairs ; but for the mass of the people, sunk in bondage, degradation and misery, the Cloistral Schools were of no value.

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there was an immense industrial expansion. Cities acquired political and social importance, and Schools were formed for the education chiefly of the children of citizens.1

. The Renaissance imparted a stimulus to classical culture, but it had little direct effect upon the education of the people. Yet in them the yearning for knowledge was fast becoming irrepressible.

The schoolmasters, however, merited little esteem and enjoyed none. They were formed into Guilds ; they travelled

1 "It is certain," says Sharon Turner, "that this wasteful period of civil misery was an interval in which the Anglo-Norman mind was extensively educating itself;" and Mr. Hallam affirms that, "about the latter part of the eleventh century, that ardour for intellectual pursuits began to show itself, which in the twelfth broke out into a flame. "

xviii Introduction,

from place to place ; and as they appreciated their occupation meanly, they exercised it mechanically.

It is to the Reformation that Europe owes an education of the people in the fullest acceptation of the word.

In all Protestant countries about the period of that great convulsion a generous provision was made for the intellectual elevation of the children of the middle classes and of the poor. Except through Protestantism, popular instruction has for three centuries and a half been modified and improved only by the efforts of individuals such as Pestalozzi, Jacotot, and a few more. In the general progress of civilization, education must always profit, and it may yet be moulded by some fresh influence — such as it received from Christianity and the Reformation.

How far the great Old Schools of England can be or ought to be effected by that primordial influence, or by other influences of a minor kind, cannot be determined by what at first sight might seem most reasonable. England cherishes the exceptional and anomalous, and nothing can well be more exceptional and more anomalous than her great Endowed Schools. Though most of them arose when the Middle Ages were drawing to an end, they are yet in the main supremely mediaeval in character, and it is difficult to see how the mediaeval element can be removed without changing their nature. Utilitarianism, left to itself, would probably sweep them away altogether, and substitute an equivalent in the shape of the German Gymnasia or Realschuhn. But Utilitarianism is not the highest wisdom, and these Schools have to be regarded less in themselves, perhaps, than in relation to a particular fashion of society. No English institution can be fairly measured by an ideal standard ; for if so estimated nearly every English institution would be forthwith condemned. The simple question must be whether a particular institution

Introduction. xix

harmonizes with other institutions, and with a certain rude, vague, yet quite intelligible something, which may be called the English Scheme of Life. The Great Endowed Schools are less to be considered as educational agencies, in the intellectual sense, than as social agencies. /

In many respects they are undoubtedly defective. They neither furnish the best moral training nor the best mental discipline, nor the most salutary and substantial mental enrichment; they do not form the most accomplished scholars or the most heroic, exalted, and disinterested men, but they are the theatres of athletic manners, and the training places of a gallant, generous spirit for the English gentleman. This is the highest merit claimed for them by the warmest and most discerning of their admirers. England will, doubtless, in due time succeed in creating institutions aiming mainly at stimulating and storing the mind; but by no process of transfigurement are the great Endowed Schools likely to be rendered institutions of this stamp. To be convinced of this, let any one read the valuable evidence given before, and the elaborate Report published by, the late Schools' Commission. The Members of the Commission were notable alike for integrity and intelligence. Their prejudices— if prejudices they had — were all of a conservative kind. Eton and the other Schools were dear to them as the homes and sanctuaries of their boyhood. We are not, therefore, to deem their opinions, conclusions, and suggestions those of innovators, but the results of sound sense, and of enlightened experience, tempered by patriotic feeling. Now it is plain the Commisioners wish the Institutions not so much to be remodelled as to be amended. The Schools are still to be more aristocratical than cloistral, more classical than national. It is here that we encounter the pith and pinch of the case. How far the Schools carry out the intentions of the founders xx Introduction.

should be treated as a subordinate point, though by no means to be lost sight of. It is of vastly more importance to decide to what extent they achieve a national purpose. The aristocratical element has immense force in England. The English aristocracy is the only aristocracy in Europe which is still powerful, and even the progress of democracy adds seemingly to its strength. The aspiration of the English aristocracy is to be, not the best educated, but for practical purposes the most cultivated. This class, however, does not exist for its own sake; does not exist merely to monopolize certain privileges ; it exists that it may be the national ornament and bulwark ; it exists that it may crown that social hierarchy which should symbolize the hierarchy of nature.

Now it is in reference to the interests of the social hierarchy that the English aristocracy should be always contemplated, otherwise its doom may be the same as that which befell the aristocracies of Venice and of Poland. If English society as a whole is intensely aristocratic, the English Universities, the great English Endowed Schools, the English Church, the English Army, the English Navy should be aristocratic also, though still in entire subserviency to the most glorious of the national destinies. Theorising on the subject will profit little, and the English are wisely impatient of theories. But it is evident that conservative realists as the English may be, prone though they are to let the aristocratic element have its due empire, they must yet allot the foremost place to the National idea. It is not then timid conservatives, neither is it innovators, theorists, utilitarians, common-place mechanical reformers, that should deal with the Great Endowed Schools ; but what we may fairly term the heart, and conscience, and reverence of the nation. If the noblest instincts of the people were consulted, they would assuredly oppose organic change in these venerable institutions, but they might demand that

Introduction. xxi

their cloistered aspect should be diminished, their aristocratic associations elevated, their classical power expanded and fertilized, and their national leaven and lineaments increased. The best friends of these Schools confess that they contain much that is pedantic, much that is puerile, much that is antiquated, much that is obsolete, much that is obstructive, and not a little that is barbarous, and that, like other English institutions, they are apt to confound stolidity with solidity. Let then abuses be removed ; let absolute obscurantism cease, and let such improvements be adopted as commend themselves, not to superficial progress, but to the most exalted wisdom.

To make the loftier kind of education in England what it ought to be, three measures are chiefly needful : the appointment of a Minister of Public Instruction, with somewhat of autocratic authority ; the establishment of a National University, and the formation of Academies and Schools corresponding to the Gymnasia and the Realschulen of the Germans, in which the business of instruction should not be monopolized, to the extent it is in our Great Schools, by the Ministers of the Church.

Education in England is at present very much of a chancemedley affair. It has neither unity of object nor of spirit. The whims of individuals, the bigotry of sects, the timid interference of the Government, the tricks of charlatans, sciolism, incompetency, coarse popular feeling, and necessity, all commingle and counteract. What fruits can such a system, or rather such an absence of system, bear? A Minister of Public Instruction would not, it is true, eradicate the whole evil, would not provide a perfect remedy, but he would be an efficient instrument of a great reformation. He would potently help to bring order and unity; he would infuse energy, and would compel even the most recalcitrant and incapable to follow a comprehensive plan. In this country there is a dislike, and a very proper dislike, to that bureaucratic meddling xxii Introduction.

which is the bane of Continental States. But we sometimes suffer as much from the want of centralization as other nations do from its excess. By all means let bureaucracy, which is the pedantry of despotism, be opposed. Let no dread, however, be entertained of centralization where education is concerned; for vigorous centralization would quicken and stimulate public instruction, enlarge its scope, and hasten its march.

A National University in or near the Metropolis, is one of the most urgent national needs. This might be the noblest University on the earth. The British Empire is not limited to the British Islands ; and British influence is not limited to the British Empire. London is the centre of the world's material commerce ; it might be the centre of a diviner commerce — that of mind. The cosmopolitanism which would destroy earnestness and efface nationalities is not to be commended, but how desirable a point would that be, where, what is best in all nationalities, could meet !

In certain social agencies and aspects,' France must rule, as heretofore ; and Germany for ages must remain the teacher of deepest thought to mankind. As, however, England has produced the most catholic of poets, Shakespeare, she could be the most catholic of countries, and a National University would aid her in the magnificent design.

The Gymnasia of Germany, though of Mediaeval origin, retain few Mediasval features. They are a more perfect kind of Grammar Schools than those with which we are familiar in England. To the science and art of teaching not much attention has been given amongst us. In Germany it has been thoroughly and comprehensively studied. The German Gymnasia are the preparatory Schools for the Universities. They have therefore in a supreme degree attracted the attention of German educationists.

Originally, the Greek Gymnasium had simply a physical, an

Introduction. xxiii

athletic purpose, in harmony with the name. Gradually, though still remaining theatres for muscular exercises, the Greek Gymnasia embraced moral and intellectual objects. They are chiefly known to us in modern times as the spots where Plato, Aristotle, [and other famous philosophers, taught or lectured. For a time, simply open spaces, shaded with trees, they were transformed into majestic structures, the marvel and the boast of Grecian architecture. Adorned with the altars of the gods, with the statues of demigods and heroes, with bas-reliefs and pictures, commemorating patriotic deeds, and recalling religious systems, they then spoke more eloquently to the heart of Grecian youth than even the voice of the greatest poets and philosophers.

The Germans have imitated the Greek Gymnasium as far as their own pedantry and the bureaucratic caprices of their Governments have permitted them to do so.

In some Universities, the Scotch particularly, the professors of Latin are called professors of Humanity ; and the word Humanity, in its most exalted sense, as signifying whatsoever ennobles while enlightening the Human Being, indicates what the German Gymnasia aim to impart. As vehicles and treasuries of this humanism, the Greek and Latin languages have held a leading position. Their right to this position is not disputed, but some earnest German educationists have proposed to deliver Greek and Latin from the bondage of grammatical formalism, and to fill them with life. This change can hardly be too much commended; for we gain little by familiarizing ourselves with the Greek or Latin speech unless we enter by sympathy and imagination into the innermost existence of antiquity. No less desirable is a reform which would approximate the German Gymnasium to the Greek Gymnasium in respect to athletic sports. But how, and to what extent the positive and the practical, as distinguished from the classical xxiv Introduction.

and the ideal, should enter among the regular labours of the Gymnasium, must be subject for serious and anxious inquiry. The question has already been a perplexity to German governments and German educators. On the one hand, nothing should be absent which is needful to the completeness and perfection of education : on the other, nothing merely utilitarian should be admitted, nothing tending to degrade the divine mission of Instruction. The educational forces should be diversified, grouped, intensified, — never dispersed. Germany is approaching nearer and nearer every year to political unity, and the German Gymnasia cannot fail to be immensely affected by this circumstance.

In the German Gymnasia, as in English Public Schools, though in a less degree, the religious element is a difficulty. But in Germany, as elsewhere, it will cease to be a difficulty the moment the catholic spirit of religion, — so embracing and so penetrating, — is recognised.

The Realschulen of Germany arose about the beginning of the last century. Their birthplace was Prussia, and nearly all the Realschulen follow Prussian models. The middle classes send to the Realschulen those of their children not intended for the learned professions. Mathematics, the Natural Sciences, and the Modern Languages, especially French and English, are taught. Latin sometimes forms part of the instruction, though the leading German educationists are opposed to its admission. The studies in the Realschulen must be regarded as a preparation for the ordinary work of the world. They are, in intention, decidedly utilitarian, and view Industrialism as the one grand fact of recent days. They aim at making not learned men, but intelligent and energetic men. Some Realschulen strive to combine three things : — general instruction, industrial instruction, and technical instruction ; chemicals and linear drawing forming portions of the last. It is confessed, however, that.