Charities of France in 1866. An account of some of the principal existing charitable institutions in that country

Preface

o'HHo

HE information contained in the following pages respecting Frencli charitable institutions may be of in- T^^^^ terest to those who are concerned in the management ^i of kindred associations in this country.

For the facts obtained, the compiler has depended upon recently-published works and official documents.

He is indebted to Monsieur Armand Husson, Director of the General Administration of Public Charities in Paris, for valuable reports, as well as for a free pass to visit the various establishments under his charge.

Boston, January, 1867.

CONTENTS, oXWo

CHAPTEE I.

Page .

MODERN PARIS . .... 11

Chapter II. History Of Ancient Systems Of Relief . ... 14

CHAPTEE III.

SYSTEM OF RELIEF FROM 1599 TO 1788 . . . . CO

CHAPTEE IV.

MODERN LEGISLATION . 2i"i

CHAPTEE V.

PLANS OF RELIEF DURING THE REVOLUTION 31

CHAPTER VI.

COMPARATIVE MERITS OF HOSPITAL AND DISPENSARY SYSTEMS, ?A

CHAPTEE VII.

HOSPITALS AND HOSPICES. — TOLERATION THEREIN . . . 38 yiii CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK VIII.

Page.

HOSPITALS AND HOSPICES ..... 44

CHAPTER IX.

SEFUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HOSPITALS . 52

CHAPTER X.

PRESENT SYSTEM OF PUBLIC RELIEF .57

CHAPTER XI.

HOSPITAL OF LA MATEKNITE . . 65

CHAPTER XII.

INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF HOSPITALS AND HOSPICES .... 68

CHAPTER XIII.

CHILDREN'S HOSPITALS . . . .76

CHAPTER XIV.

HOSPITAL FOR CONVALESCENTS . 79

CHAPTER XV.

USE AND ABUSE OF HOSPITALS

CHAPTER XVI.

RETREAT.';

contents: ix

CI-IAPTEE XVII.

SECOUES A DOMICIL, OE HOME-AID FOE THE SICK .... 94

CHAPTER XVIII.

HOUSES OF EEFUGE .... ...

CHAPTER XIX.

CHAPTER XX.

CEECHES . . 109

CHAPTER XXI.

SALLES D'ASILE 117

CHAPTER XXII.

E>fFANTS ASSISTES (FOUNDLINGS) 1:;3

CHAPTER XXIII.

Ar.ANDONED CHILDREN

CHAPTER XXIV.

Ali-VNDONED CHILDREN, CONTINUED

CHAPTER XX A'.

ABANDONED CHILDREN, CONTINUUD

X CO XTEXTS.

CHAPTER XXVI.

Pago.

SOCIETES DE CHARITE 5IATERXELLE .148

CHAPTER XXVII.

BUKEAUX DES NOUKRICBS ... 151

CHAPTER XXVIII.

TEMPORARY AID TO MOTHERS . . 155

CHAPTER XXIX.

CHARITABLE A.SSOCIATIONS . . . . 16t

CHAPTER XXX.

OUT-DOOK RELIEF ... . 169

CHAPTER XXXI.

COr.OXIZATION . . 174

CHAPTER XXXII.

M0NT8 DE I'lETE, OR PAWNERS' BANKS .... .177

CHAPTER XXXIII.

LA SOCIETE DU PRIXCE IMPERIAL . 185

CHAPTER XXXIV.

CHARITIES OF FRANCE.

o^^o

CHAPTER I,

MODERN PARIS.

Q^^/RAYELLERS who visit Paris cannot fail to be im- (3^) pressed with the splendor of its public avenues and buildings, and the magnitude of the improvements now in the course of completion. Modern Paris can scarcely be recognized by one who visited it a quarter of a century ago, and the stranger is constantly impressed with the marks of energy and perseverance which have been able to transform the dark and narrow strets of the Latin quarter into broad avenues lined with stately buildings. The changes wrought in the external appearance of the populace is not less striking. The Poissarde of 1790 can hardly be found in the fish-market of 1866. The odorous and filthy den occupied by the virago of that day is transformed into an elegant structure of iron and glass. A respectable though talkative matron, in a neat white cap, retails her fish and lobsters from a pure white marble slab, behind which she is sitting, or, if you prefer it, transfers them all living from a tank of pure running water at her feet. There is perhaps no population, not excepting our own, where there is at the present time (1866) more evidence of thrift and well-being. Public reports and statistics show that there is much poverty ; but we see little evidence of suffering; and the miserable, degraded, and halfnaked beings everywhere seen in Great Britain can hardly be found in France, even in the poorest localities. The improvement in dress and cleanliness among the mechanics and laborers is very striking. It might not be safe to say that the character of the people has improved in the same degree with their material condition, for very recent events in European as well as in American history prove that the same incitements tend to the same results, and that the masses, when blinded by political frenzy, will still commit excesses as in former periods.

The cause of this general appearance of thrift and prosperity may be fairly ascribed to the long-continued peace, the general diffusion of education and intelligence among the people, and last, but not least, a more general sense of religious obligation and respect for the outward observances of the church. Personal observation as well as the universal testimony show that outward religious observances are more respected, and the public religious services of the church better attended, than for a long period of years. In 1831 the number of children in attendance on the primary schools was 1,935,624, or 1,200,715 boys and 734,909 girls. In 1846 the number had increased to 3,240,436, and in 1857 to 3,850,000. For the last nine years the increase has probably been in still greater proportion. Notwithstanding all these evidences of improvement and signs of prosperity.

MODERN PARIS. 13

we know that large numbers receive public aid, and we are led to wonder why so little evidence of public misery is seen, and what are the instrumentalities by which such results are etFected. The object of the following pages is to furnish information in regard to some of these after giving a brief historical sketch of public charitable effort, or, as it is technically called, " Bienfaisance Publique,"* in France during past centuries.

* The term Bienfaisance, signifying a virtue emanating from the love of om- kind, was first introduced into the French language in 1725, by the, Abbe de St. Pierre. He says: "Since I have seen Christians dishonor the term of charity by the persecution of their enemies, and heretics profess to practise Christian charity by persecuting other heretics, or even Christians, I have sought for a word which exactly expressed the idea of doing good to others, and I have found none more suitable than the word Bienfaisance. Let those who will, use it. At any rate, it expresses my meaning, and cannot be misunderstoood."

CHAPTEE II.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT SYSTEMS OF BELIEF.

% early times the bishops and clergy were the only dis- MFj pensers of alms to the poor. The first council of Orleans, held during the reign of Clovis, in the year 511, ordained that the whole income of the church should be devoted to the maintenance of public woi'ship, the support of the clergy and the poor, and the ransom of captives. A later council, held in the same city in 549, ordained that criminals should be visited in the prisons every Sunday, by the archdeacon and provost, who should supply their wants at the expense of the church, and further, that the bishops should take particular care of the lepers. The council of Tours, held in 566, denounces as murderers of the poor, al who shall appropriate to their own use the property of the church; and if they persist in their evil courses, "after three warnings, we will all assemble, and in concert with our bishops, priests, and clergy, since we have no other arms, we will proclaim from the choir of the church, against such murderers, the 108th Psalm, to draw upon them the malediction of Judas, that they may die not only excommunicated, but accursed."

The second council of Macon, held in 585, ordained that ' ' The bishops should recommend to all the virtue of hospi-

AXCIEXT SYSTEMS OF BELIEF. 15

tality; and to enable them better to practise it themselves, they should harbor no dogs in their houses, lest access thereto should be less free to the poor." The synod of Auxerre soon afterwards recommended to the faithful, in order that their devotions should be more acceptable, that they should make gifts to those poor persons whose names should be registered in the church records.

In the year 549, the council of Orleans confirmed the establishment of a hospital at Lyons, founded by Childebert and his queen. Before the end of the same century, Paris had established the Hospital of St. Julien Le Pauvre, and Reims and Auterre each possessed a similar institution. Before the close of the next century nearly every considerable town had its hospital, while Paris possessed several. As early as the reign of Charlemagne they were classified for the reception of five kinds oi inmates, — the poor, the sick, the orphans, the aged, and children. To meet the large expenditures required for the relief of the poor, the ransom of captives, and the support of hospitals, the clergy received vast benefices. Following the example of Constantine and his successors, the Merovingian kings were most liberal in their grants to the clergy. Clovis, for instance, gave to the church at Reims as much land as St. Remy could ride around during the royal nap at noon, and this grant was made in accordance with the prayer of the inhabitants, who preferred to be vassals to the church rather than to the kinff- Childebert and his Queen Ulthugoth, as before stated, built and endowed the hospital at Lyons, and their example was followed by their subjects, who conferred large sums in public charity.

From the reign of Pepin in 752, the first of the second or Carlovingian race of kings, the clergy ceased to be the exclusive almoners to the poor. Under Charlemagne, in 809, the following became the law of the kingdom :

" The counts must take care of the poor ; each must feed his own poor. Let no one despoil the poor of the little which remains to him. The widow, the orphan, and the helpless, are placed under the protection of the king, as they are under God. They should enjoy legal peace, and the cause in which they are interested should 'be judged with especial care and diligence. Advocates should be given to the poor to prevent oppression and deception by the rich. To insure the execution of these charitable measures, ')nissi dominici, charged w.ith full powers, will go forth, and visit all parts of this vast empire."

Notwithstanding these enactments, the church continued to be the source from whence flowed the streams of public charity, and Charlemagne himself was prodigal in his gifts. During the wars and confusion which followed the death of that monarch, all organized institutions for the relief of the poor had nearly disappeared. On the approach of the year 1000, which in the popular mind was fixed upon as heralding the end of the world, and to be preceded by wars, famine, and the prevalence of the feu sacre or St. Anthony's fire large sums were bestowed in public charity, while wills and deeds in favor of hospitals and other charitable institutions were headed by the inscription, "Adventante mundi vesper o" With the crusaders came the diseases incident to larsre armies thrown upon a foreign shore without commissariat or disci-

ANCIEXT STSTE2IS OF BE LIEF. 17

pline, and exposed to the vicissitudes of climate, and the pangs of hunger and thirst. The princijDal diseases tlius brought were the leprosy and scurvy, and scarcely a town or village was without some kind of hospital or refuge for patients afflicted with the disorder first named. In the twelfth century, according to official statements, no less than nineteen thousand hospitals and retreats were opened in Europe for lepers. With the increase of these establishments came abuses in the administration of funds, and consequent edicts in favor of reform from the councils of Paris held in 1212, and from those of Aries and Ravenna held during the same century. Upon the complaint of Durant, Bishop of Meude, the council of Vienne, held in 1312, appointed laymen to aid in managing the hospitals and public establishments, and adopted a constitution for their government, called Clementine, in honor of Clement V., who presided over the council. It does not appear that the poor gained by the change of organization, as frequent edicts to check flagrant abuses are found during following centuries.

In a royal edict dated at Fontainebleau, December 15, 1543, we read :

" As we have been informed of the great disorders which exist in the lazarettoes and leproseries founded during past ages in our realm by our predecessors, kings, dukes, counts, and other seigneurs, as well as by many other devoted and faithful Christians, cities, chapters, and religious communities, of which the funds have been perverted, the title-deeds and charters lost or stolen by the administrators and governors of the same, who persecute and strangle the sick poor and lepers, and otherwise treat them so cruelly that they are compelled to quit the place and beg through the surrounding towns and villages, and besides do in other ways misapply the revenues, goods, and inheritances of the said hospitals, bequeathing them to their children, relatives, and friends, and other enormous abuses ; now, therefore, I give to the bailiffs, seneschals, and judges, the supervision of the said hospitals and lazarettoes, with power to remove the said administrators."

These measures having been found insufficient, Francis I. in 1544 established the " Bureau Generale des Pauvres," which was charged with the duty of levying an annual tax, called " tox d'aumone," or poor-tax, on all princes, lords, towns, and landholders.

An edict of Henry II., dated in 1547, ordains that —

" Each inhabitant of Paris shall pay a special tax to meet the wants of the poor. But the weekly collections and gifts received in each parish for the relief of the poor, almost innumerable in Paris, are so much diminished, and come in most part from persons in easy circumstances, burghers, and inhabitants of our now cold-hearted city, and it being inconvenient and impossible to continue longer the distribution of alms to the said poor, which have hitherto been weekly distributed, — a matter which causes us great regret and displeasure, — Parliament shall appoint commissioners who shall receive the alms and gifts which all liberally-disposed persons shall be inclined to give."

By an edict dated in 1553, the general supervision of all the hospitals in the kingdom was given to the grand almoner of France. A few years later Charles IX. authorized the appointment of a joint commission of the clergy and laity to

ANGIsyT SYSTEMS OF BELIEF. 19

administer the public charitable funds. The gradually increasing influence of the laity in the administration of public affairs, as will be seen by reference to past legislation, is strikingly shown by the act of Henry III., in which it was provided, " That no one shall hereafter be commissioned as administrator for the government of the goods and revenues of the lazarettoes and hospitals, other than simple burghers, tradesmen, and laborers, and not ecclesiastics, gentlemen, archers, public officials, their followers, or persons by them introduced."

CHAPTER III. SYSTEM or RELIEF FEOM 1599 TO 1788

)Y an edict dated in 1599, Hemy IV. established a " Chambre de Charite Chretienne,'" and Louis XIII., in 1612, created a board entitled, " Chambre Generate de Reformation." Thus far public efforts for the relief of the poor had been directed to the establishment of arge buildings or groups of baildings, where the sick and the well, the vagrant and the idle, had been herded together without regard to age, circumstances, or sex. Under the influence of the legislation just quoted, a better system was inaugurated for the relief of the destitute at their own dwellings, — a system which had been approved as far back as the reigns of Charlemagne and Saint Louis, but which had never been put in practice until the times of Francis I. and Henry II. The first of these kings, in 1536, ordered that " poor invalids, who have chambers, lodgings, or other refuge, should be fed and cared for at their own dwellings ; '' and whatever may have been his merits in other respects, he, perhaps, may be entitled to the credit of having established the Dispensary system, which has only been perfected during the present century, and has proved to be of incalculable benefit, in an economical and moral point of view. In the reio-n of Henry II. several work-shops were established in Paris for

SYSTEM OF BELIEF. 21

"healthy vagabonds," and it was arranged that "poor and helpless invalids, who have houses, chambers, or other lodgings, in the city or suburbs, should receive reasonable aid at their own dwellings, or other convenient place. The poor and helpless who cannot work and have no houses, chambers, or place of shelter, shall be promptly conducted to the hospitals, hotels, or Maisons Dieu. Curates, vicars, and wardens, shall keep an exact record of the poor in their respective parishes. Paupers who have received aid, and who shall be found begging in the city, shall be punished ; adults with the whip, and little children with the rod." In 1642 a "Bureau des Pauvres," consisting of clergy, church-wardens, and prominent citizens, was established; but from contemporary documents it would appear that the system of domiciliary aid was but partially carried out. An official report states that " they gave much and they gave unwisely," and the matter ended by resorting to the old plan of sending the poor to the public hospitals. Street-begging had now become an intolerable evil, in spite of the many stringent measures taken to suppress it. Paris was infested by an army of forty thousand beggars, called, in the language of the time, truands, piefres, maligneux, who formed a community by themselves. They acknowledged neither the claims of law nor religion, and plundered the citizens without scruple whenever the opportunity was offered. The evil became so intolerable that stringent measures were decided upon, and in 1657 the beggars were summoned to appear, between the 7th and 13th of May, in the court of the Hospital de la Pitie, in order that they might be registered, and distributed among the various public establishments.

Five thousand only appeared in answer to the call, but for a time a great improvement was manifest in the capital. A contemporary writer says that " the greater portion of the 'beggars left for the provinces, and the most sensible of them managed to gain a subsistence without begging, while the most infirm invalids were transformed by their own proper will." They, however, soon reappeared, and in 1659, encouraged by the archers of the guard, who had taken them under their protection, made several attacks upon the soldiers guarding one of the hospitals. The thirty years' war, with the confiscation of the property of the clergy and religious houses, and the prodigality of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., reduced an immense number of persons to poverty, and beggary increased in proportion. By an edict of 1656, Louis XIV. concentrated under one administration, known as the HSpital Generale, the five public establishments in Paris, viz.. La Pitie, Le Refuge, Le Scipion, Le Bicetre, and La Savouniere, all of which were used indiscriininately for the reception of the sick and paupers. The directors were appointed for life, and were entrusted with the entire charge of the paupers of Paris, with full powers to punish the contumacious, to make collections in their behalf, and to place charity-boxes in the churches, public squares, shops of tradesmen, or in any other place where the people could be excited to charitable effort. They were also permitted to receive gifts and legacies, and to manage all the goods, real and personal, belonging to the hospitals, without accounting to other authority. The clergy having the spiritual care of the inmates in what a writer calls " this immense Versailles of

SYSTEM OF RELIEF. 23

misery," found themselves entirely subjected to the rule of the directors. An order was issued that a hospital on the same plan should be established in every large city and town in the kingdom. Stringent laws were enacted against streetbeggary ; amongst others the following : " All persons are forbidden to give alms to beggars in the streets or public places, — no motives of compassion,, pressing necessity, or other necessity notwithstanding, — under penalty of a fine of six livres. Landlords are also forbidden to harbor or lodge beggars on their premises."

This experiment of Louis XIV. proved a failure, from the abuse of the inordinate powers given to the directors, or, as a writer has said, " he did not leave a drop less in the sea of pauperism which he had attempted to dry up." Little was done in this direction by Louis XV.

In 1781 the Emperor Joseph, who had interested himself particularly in the subject of charitable economy, paid a visit to his brother-in-law, Louis XVI. , and after an inspection of the Hotel Dieu, made earnest remonstrances in regard to the horrible condition of that institution. Louis directed Poyet, architect of the Hotel Dieu, to investigate the subject, and in 1785 the report was submitted by the king to the Academy of Sciences, where it was fully discussed, and a committee appointed on the subject, consisting of the following members : Lassove, Tenon, Tillet, Darcet, Daubenton, Coulomb, La Place, Lavoisier, and Bailly. Francis Arago says of this committee, "In no age, in no country, could there be gathered more knowledge or more virtue." On application of the committee for admission to the Hotel Dieu, they were

24 CHABiriES OF FRANCE.

met with a flat refusal Ly the directors, and it ^vas only by an express order from the king that they were enabled to enter the hospital. The report of the commission was drawn up by Mons. Bailly, and from it we take the following extracts :

"The committee have seen the convalescents occupying the same wards with the sick, the dying with the dead. They also found the wards of tlie insane contiguous to those of patients who had submitted to severe operations, and who could obtain no sleep on account of the frantic cries which the former kept up day and night. The ward St. Joseph is devoted to pregnant women, the virtuous and the vile. Three or four may be found in one bed, exposed to contagion, and with the risk of injury to their infants. Four or five women, who had been confined at different periods, were found huddled in one bed. The mind revolts at such a situation, in which they cannot fail to infect each other. The greater part pei'ish, or leave the hospital in a dying condition. Each ward has several straw beds, for the dying, and for those whose beds are unfit for use. There, amidst the dying and the filthy, are often deposited those new comers who arrive early in the day, and have no place assigned them. The oijerating-room, in which the surgeons trepan, cut for stone, and amputate, contains at the same time those who are undergoing operations, as well as patients who have undergone, or are waiting for them. The work is done in the middle of the hall, where you can see the preparations as well as hear the cries of the poor wretches. Those whose turn is to come have presented to them what they are to suffer ; and one can easily imagine the efiect such a scene must have upon those who have already undergone the trial. The patient undergoes all the terrors and shocks, in addition to the dangers from inflammation and suppuration, which fearfully increase the hazards to life."

SYSTEM OF BELIEF. 25

The report adds :

" The itch is almost universal at the Hotel Dieu. The surgeons, the Sisters of Charity, and the attendants, contract the disease directly from the patients or from their clothing. Patients leaving the hospital carry it home to their families ; and thus the Hotel Dieu is an inexhaustible source from which the disease is spread throughout Paris."

Further investigations showed that equally great abuses prevailed in other institutions. At the Bicetre, vrhich was devoted to the treatment of venereal diseases, twenty-five beds were occupied by two hundred patients, and two-thirds of the number died. As a moral lesson, every patient was whipped on his entrance as well as on his departure, and yet, during the year, there were many more applications than admissions. At the Salpetriere, in 1788, there were eight thousand inmates at one time crowded to2;ether.

Chapter IV. Modern Legislation

MONG the various questions of social economy, about which there are so many conflicting opinions in France at the present day, no one, perhaps, has received more careful consideration than the administration of the public funds for the relief of the poor. In every age of French history this subject has been a leading one in the mind of government, and has been accompanied by legislation corresponding to the public intelligence and morals. This was particularly the case about the close of the last century, when the solicitude of statesmen was seriously aroused, and long and earnest debates ensued in the Legislative Assembly. Great diiferences of opinion were entertained by eminent and learned authorities, and numerous publications were issued, many of them the result of learned and careful investigation. Amidst the throes of revolution, when all established principles seemed to be shaken, and everything was questioned, the public obligations towards the poor who had been reduced to poverty by the efiiects of war and general disorder, became a subject of paramount interest and necessity. The question was, Whether the ancient charitable foundations be maintained on their old basis, or should they be given up, and a new experiment tried, more in

MODEBN LEGISLATION. 27

accordance with the supposed light of the age ? The reformers, hostile to past precedents and strong in numbers, were in favor of the latter plan, while those who were willing to be governed by the light of past experience advooated the maintenance of the old system, with such amendments as might be called for by the new order of things.

Daunou, whose patriotism and moderation are well known, exclaimed in Convention, "If it is so hard to create, how can we make up our minds to destroy ? After ten years of revolution, should it not be pardonable to feel how precious is a thing which exists ? Can we be tempted to throw down that which only needs slight modification, to build in its place, with painful and fruitless efi'orts, a new edifice, of which it will be easier to trace the plan than to find the materials?"

These moderate counsels found but little favor in a body bent upon innovations ; but before deciding upon any new plan of organization, it was found necessary to appoint a committee to investigate the causes of the public distress. The more serious the wound, the greater need was there that its depth should be probed. Several works, published by well-known and esteemed authors, threw much light upon the subject, and revealed the true causes of the disorder. Each, according to his peculiar opinions, proposed the proper mode of remedy. Some, philosophers, but above all Christians, regarded the subject of public aid to the poor in a charitable point of view, and their relief as a public duty. Others, statesmen, far-seeing and rigid economists, considered the subject mainly in its necessary connection with social organization, and the obligations of government. Others, more

28 CBABITIES OF FBANCE.

recent writers, viewing the matter in a merely political light, rejecting former principles, have sought to revive the theories of the revolutionary epoch, which are as dangerous as they are impracticable, and as such have not survived the light of public discussion. Without entering into the details respecting the various opinions of the writers, we find that the almost unanimous opinion of those best able to judge of subjects relating to public charity, is, that the principal, if not the sole cause of the public distress among the lower classes of society in France, is the want of moral and intellectual culture, on account of which the laborer is destitute of the intelligence necessary to guide him in the difiicult circumstances of his career, or to acquire that kind of jorudence and self-respect which can alone enable him to meet them. At this point the harmony of opinion ceases ; for however unanimous in recognizing the greatness of the evil, those minds so acute in discussing it and its causes differ entirely as to the proper remedy. All seem to recognize the end to be attained, but diifer as to the means of reaching it. One of the most esteemed of the writers alluded to says :

" Owing to the number and the diversity of the works which have been published on public charity, there has arisen a difference of opinion and clashing of systems, which have confused some, and have filled the minds of others with the discouragement of skepticism. The art of public charity (bienfaisance) , which at first sight appears so simple, and so easy in its applications, has raised the most difficult problems. Even the foundations of the social organization have been questioned. Some have maintained the right of the poor to a support as sacred, and have imposed

MODERN LEGISLATION. 29

the obligation on society as a debt, while others have considered such a system as a perversion of true charity, and the source of pauperism. Light has been thrown upon the subject since 1839. The opinions advanced during the Eevolution of 1848 have been useful, in that they have excited public notice, and have occupied the attention of some of the ablest minds."

Mr. Thiers, in the report of a committee of the Legislative Assembly, says :

" That which the old order of society has left us to do, is just that which is doubtful, problematical, debatable, and for that reason is left to be done.

"Although some of the untried experiments are the most doubtful, it does not follow that they are to be condemned, or that in former times everything had been thought of and perfected, leaving us nothing to do. Although much good was formerly done, there remains much to do, but it is not the good which we dream of, or imagine. In this, as in everything else, the State (which is no other than man himself) is shut up in the nan-ow limits of the possible, and to promise to do more is not doing it. It is making an idle engagement, and raising hopes which disappoint and often bring despair."