Old Testament history

Front matter

V Sl\ V;

LiBKAKK

^lABa-FAYLOR HALL

CHAPTER I. The Sources of Old Testament History 23

3. The Biblical Sources. 4. The Use of the Biblical Sources. 5. Classification of the Biblical Sources. 6. The Hebrew Laws. 7. Old Testament Historical Literature. 8. The Prophetic Literature as Historical Source. 9. The Liturgical Literature. 10. The Wisdom Literature. 1 1 . The Apocalyptic Literature. 12. The Extra-Biblical Sources.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER II. The Land of Palestine 32

13. The Old Testament World. 14. The Boundaries of Palestine. 15. The Coast Plains. 16. The Central Plateau and the Valley of Esdraelon. 17. The Valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. 18. The East- Jordan Plateaus. 19. The Highways of Palestine. 20. The General Character of Palestine. 21. Israel's Neighbors.

Suggestions for Study.

Part I The Formative Period

From the Beginnings to the Death of Solomon — 933 B. C.

CHAPTER III. The Formation of the Hebrew Tribes 43

J. The Origin of the Hebrew Race 22. The General Contents of Gen. 1 to 11. 23. The Two Accounts of the Creation. 24. The Two Accounts of the Flood. 25. The Tables of the Nations.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Patriarchal Tribal Migrations 26. The General Contents of Gen. 12 to 50. 27. The History of Abraham. 28. The History of Jacob-Israel. 29. The Story of Joseph and His Brethren. 30. The Literary and Historical Character of the Patriarchal Stories.

Suggestions for Study.

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PAGE

j. The Traditions of Genesis in the Light of Contemporaneous History 31. The Original Home and Migrations of the Semites. 32. The Amorite Migration. 33. The Elamite Ascendancy and Gen. 14. 34. The Reign of Hammurabi. 35. The Hyksos-Canaanite Migration. 36. The Tell el-Amarna Period. 37. The Hittites. 38. The Habiri. 39. The Aramean Migration. 40. Jacob- Israel. 41. The Patriarchal Tribal Mode of Life and Settlements. 42. The Descent into Egypt. 43. The Presuppositions of the Biblical Tradition.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER IV. The Awakening of the National Consciousness — Moses 64

1. The Emancipation

44. The Biblical Sources. 45. The Egyptian Enslavement. 46. The Date of the Exodus. 47. The Call of Moses. 48. The Passover and the Exodus. 49. The Crossing of the Red Sea. 50. The Historical Situation.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Life in the Desert

51. The Biblical Data. 52. The Provisions of the Desert. 53. The Hebrew Residence at Kadesh. 54. War with Amalek at Rephidim. 55. The Judicial Organization. 56. The Location of Horeb-Sinai.

Suggestions for Study.

3 . The Religion of the Time of Moses 57. The Covenant at Horeb-Sinai. 58. The Hebrew Pre- Mosaic Religion. 59. The Enthronement of Jehovah. 60. The Legislation at Horeb-Sinai. 61. The Origin of Hebrew Law. 62. The Decalogue. 63. The Ritual Code and the Book of the Covenant. 64. The Ark of Jehovah. 65. The Tent of Meeting. 66. Rites and Festivals. 67. The Priests and Levites. 68. The Character and Achievement of Moses. 69. The Meaning of Moses for Subsequent History. Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER V. The Conquest and Settlement of Palestine . 96 /. The Biblical Sources 70. The Contents of the Book of Joshua. 71. The Contents of the Book of Judges. 72. The Character of the Biblical Sources. 73. The Two Views of the Conquest. 74. The Framework of the History of the Judges. 75. The Elements of P and J and E. 76. The Sources for the Conquest of South and East Palestine.

Suggestions for Study. ■

2. The Invasion of Palestine 77. The Task of the Invaders. 78. The Southern Occupation. 79. The Occupation of Eastern Palestine. 80. The Occupation of Western Palestine. 81. The War of Deliverance. Suggestions for Study.

CONTENTS 7

3. The Tribal Heroes 82. Gideon. 83. Abimelech. 84. Jephthah. 85. Samson. 86. The

Settlement of the Danites. 87. The Final Settlement of the

Tribes.

Suggestions for Study.

4. The Social, Moral, and Religious Conditions during the Period of Occupation 88. The Social Life. 89. Government. 90. Culture. 91. Morals.

92. Religion.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER VI. The Establishment of the Monarchy 122

1. Samuel and Saul 93. The Philistine Aggressions. 94. Samuel and the Kingship.

95. Saul's Victory over the Philistines. 96. Samuel's Break

with Saul.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Rise of David 97. David at the Court of Saul. 98. David's Outlaw Life.

99. David among the Philistines. 100. The Philistine Victory

and the Death of Saul. 101. The Achievements and Character

of Saul.

Suggestions for Study.

3. David, King of Judah 102. David's Grief over the Death of Saul. 103. David Made

King of Judah at Hebron. 104. Esh-baal, Saul's Successor.

105. David Made King of Israel.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER VII. The Establishment of the National Monarchy — David 136

106. The Wars of Deliverance from the Philistines. 107. The Establishment of the National Capital at Jerusalem. 108. David's Wars of Conquest. 109. The Organization of David's Kingdom and Internal Affairs, no. David's Family Life. in. Absalom's Rebellion. 112. The Rebellion of Sheba. 113. The Last Days of David. 114. The Character and Achievements of David.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER VIII. The Development of the National Resources — Solomon 149

I. The Reign of Solomon 115. The Accession of Solomon. 116. The Policy of Solomon.

117. Solomon's Palace and Temple. 118. The Character and

Achievements of Solomon.

Suggestions for Study.

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PAGE

2. Life During the Monarchy 119. Social Life. 120. Culture. 121. Religion. Suggestions for Study.

PART II THE PERIOD OF THE PROPHETS From the Division of the Kingdom, 933 B. C, to the Restoration under Cyrus, 538 B. C.

CHAPTER IX. The Kingdom of Israel 163

From the Division of the Kingdom to the Fall of Samaria — 933-722 B. C. 1. The Division of the Kingdom 122. The Biblical Sources. 123. The Division and Its Causes. 124. The Political Consequences. 125. The Religious Consequences. 126. From Jeroboam I to Omri. Suggestions for Study.

2. The Dynasty of Omri 127. The Reign of Omri. 128. Political Events in Israel and

Judah to Jehu.

Suggestions for Study.

3. The Religious and Social Crisis in Israel 129. Baalism. 130. The Champions of Jehovah against Baalism. 131. The Contest on Carmel. 132. The Theophany at Horeb. 133. The Interview of Elisha with Hazael. 134. The Anointing and Commission of Jehu. 135. Israel and Judah's Decline. Suggestions for Study.

4. The Political Recovery of Israel and Judah 136. The Reign of Jehoash. 137. The Reigns of Jeroboam II

and Uzziah.

Suggestions for Study.

5. The Social and Religious Life of the Divided Kingdom to the New Prophetism 138. The Biblical Data. 139. The Political and Social Ideals.

140. The Religious and Ethical Ideals. Suggestions for Study.

6. The New Prophetism 141. The Biblical Data. 142. The Character of the New Prophetism. 143. The Prophet Amos. 144. The Book of Amos. 145. The Message of Amos. 146. The Elohist Source in the Hexateuch.

Suggestions for Study.

7. The End of the Northern Kingdom 147. The Political Changes after Jeroboam II. 148. The Prophet Hosea. 149. The Message of Hosea. 150. The Prophet Isaiah. 151. The Writings of Isaiah. 152. The Syro-Ephraimitic War. 153. The Siege of Samaria. 154. The Prophet Micah. 155. The Fall of Samaria. 156. The Origin of the Samaritans. 157. The Contribution of the Northern Kingdom. . Suggestions for Study.

CONTENTS 9

PAGE

CHAPTER X. The Kingdom of Judah to the Destruction

of Jerusalem, 586 B.C 194

I. King Hezekiah and the Prophet Isaiah

158. Events in Assyria, Egypt, and Babylonia. 159. Hezekiah's Reformation. 160. Isaiah and Sargon's Campaign against Ashdod. 161. The Babylonian Embassy of Merodach- Baladan. 162. The Pro-Egyptian Policy. 163. Sennacherib's Invasion. 164. The Character and Achievements of Isaiah.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Religious Reaction under Manasseh and the Law of Deuteronomy

165. The Character of the Reaction. 166. The Problem of the Prophetic Party. 167. The Law of Deuteronomy. 168. The Purpose of the Law.

Suggestions for Study.

3. The Reign of Josiah

169. The Prophets Nahum, Zephaniah, and Jeremiah. 170. The Finding of the Book of the Law. 171. The Great Reformation. 172. The Significance of the Deuteronomic Covenant. 173. The Death of Josiah.

Suggestions for Study.

4. The Prophet Jeremiah and tlie End of Judah

174. The Sources. 175. The Earlier Life and Activity of Jeremiah. 176. The Reign of Jehoiakim. 177. Jeremiah's Courage. 178. The Rise of Babylonia. 179. The Prophet Habakkuk. 180. The First Deportation to Babylon. 181. Zedekiah's Reign and Rebellion. 182. Jeremiah's Contest with the Pro- Egyptian Party. 183. The Prophet Ezekiel. 184. The Siege of Jerusalem. 185. The Capture of the King and the Destruction of Jerusalem. 186. The Murder of Gedaliah. 187. The Character and Message of Jeremiah.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER XL The Exile 217

1. The Centers of the Exiles 188. The Exile as a Transition. 189. Fallen Judah and Its Neighbors. 190. The Exiles in Egypt. 191. The Exiles in Babylonia. 192. Ezekiel's Activity Among the Exiles. 193. The Character and Message of Ezekiel. Suggestions for Study.

2. The Literature of the Exile 194. The Literary Activity of the Exile. 195. The Prophetic

Literature. 196. The Law of Holiness.

Suggestions for Study.

4. The Great Prophet of the Exile 197. The Later Years of the Exile. 198. The Rise of Cyrus. 199. Prophecies on the Downfall of Babylon. 200. The Great Prophet of the Exile. 201. The Character and Message of Deutero-Isaiah.

Suggestions for Study.

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PAGE

5. The Religious and Social Teachings of the Prophets 202. The Prophet as a Religious and Social Force. 203. The Ethical Monotheism of the Prophets. 204. The Moral and Spiritual Nature of Religion. 205. The Social and Democratic Ideals of the Prophets. 206. The Optimism of the Prophets.

Suggestions for Study.

Part III The Period Op The Priests And Scribes

From Cyrus, 538 B. C, to Herod I, 4 A. D.

CHAPTER XII. The Restoration of the Jewish Community. 239 (The Persian Period, 538-333 B. C.)

J. The Reawakening of the Jewish Community in Palestine — Sheshbazzar 207. The Persian Rulers. 208. The Biblical Sources. 209. The

Edict of Cyrus.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Rebuilding of the Temple — Zerubbabel

210. The Rebuilding of the Temple. 211. The Prophet Haggai.

212. The Laying of the Foundations of the Temple. 213. The

Prophet Zechariah. 214. The Dedication of the Temple.

215. The Condition of the Jewish Community. 216. The

Book of Malachi. 217. Isaiah 56 to 59. Suggestions for Study.

3. The Reorganization Under Nehemiah 218. The Biblical Sources. 219. The Condition of Jerusalem.

220. Nehemiah Governor of Jerusalem. 221. The Opposition.

222. The Completion of the Walls. 223. Nehemiah's Other

Reforms. 224. The Reforms of Nehemiah's Second Term.

225. The Character and Achievements of Nehemiah. Suggestions for Study.

4. Ezra and the Institution of the Priestly Law 226. The Biblical Sources. 227. The Return Under Ezra. 228. Ezra's Marriage Reforms. 229. The Reading of the Law. 230. The Adoption of the Priestly Law. 231. The Character of the Priestly Law. 232. The Effect of the Institution of the Law. 233. The Establishment of the Samaritan Community.

Suggestions for Study.

5. The Suffering Community and the Problem of Job 234. The Last Decades of the Persian Rule. 235. The Prophecy

of Joel. 236. The Problem of the Book of Job. Suggestions for Study.

CONTENTS ii

6. The Religious and Social Ideals Under the Law 237. Religious Conceptions. 238. Religious Institutions.

239. Protests Against Particularism. 240. The Jewish Piety

of the Psalms.

Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER XIII. Judaism in Contact with Hellenism 278

(The Greek Period, 333-175 B. C.)

1. The Political Events

241. General Character of the Greek Period. 242. Effects of the Conquest of Alexander the Great. 243. The Conditions Under the Seleucids. 244. The Conditions Under the Ptolemies. 245. The Syrian Conquest of Palestine.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Literature of the Greek Period 246. The Prophetic Literature. 247. The Chronicler's Ecclesiastical History.

Suggestions for Study.

3. The Wisdom Literature and Its Ideals 248. The Wisdom Literature. 249. The Book of Proverbs. 250. The Book of Ecclesiasticus. 251. The Book of Ecclesiastes. 252. The Psalms of Reflection. 253. The Religious, Moral, and Social Ideals of the Wisdom Literature.

4. Secular Poetry and the Influence of Hellenism 254. The Song of Solomon. 255. The Influence of Hellenism. Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER XIV. Judaism in Conflict with Hellenism 292

(The Maccabean Period, 175-63 B. C.)

I. The Crisis of Judaism

256. The Biblical Sources. 257. Antiochus Epiphanes. 258. The Hellenistic Jewish High Priests. 259. The Religious Persecutions. 260. The Jewish Martyrs.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Booh of Daniel

261. The Origin and Content of the Book. 262. Its Character

and Purpose.

Suggestions for Study.

3. The Maccabean Uprising 263. The Revolt of Mattathias and His Sons. 264. Judas Maccabeus. 265. The Restoration of the Temple Service. 266. The Jews of Egypt.

Suggestions for Study.

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PAGE

CHAPTER XV. The Rule of the Maccabean Priests. . . . 303

I. The Reestablishment of Religious and National Independence 267 The Wars of Judas. 268. The Establishment of Religious Liberty. 269. The High Priest Alcimus. 270. Judas's Alliance with Rome, and His Death. 271. Jonathan and the Beginnings of Political Independence. 272. The End of Jonathan.

273. Simon and the Establishment of National Independence.

274. The Death of Simon.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Conflicts Between Pharisees and Sadducees 275. The Rise of the Parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees. 276. John Hyrcanus and the National Growth. 277. The Later Hasmonean Rulers. 278. Alexander Jannaeus. 279. Alexandra. 280. Aristobulus II. 281. Pompey's Capture of Jerusalem.

Suggestions for Study.

3. The Literature and Life of the Maccabean Period 282. The Maccabean Psalms. 283. The Book of Esther. 284. The

Book of Judith. 285. The Book of Tobit. Suggestions for Study.

CHAPTER XVI. The Jews Under Roman Rule 318

(The Roman Period, 63 B. C. to 70 A. D.)

1. The Loss of Jewish Independence

286. The Rivalries of the Hasmoneans. 287. The Rise of Antipater. 288. The Sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod. 289. The Parthians in Syria. 290. The Reign of Antigonus. 291. The Reign of Herod. 292. The Character of Herod.

Suggestions for Study.

2. The Developed Form of Judaism

293. The Scribes. 294. The Legislation of the Scribes. 295. The Synagogue. 296. The Synagogue as a Social Center. 297. The Synagogue Assemblies. 298. The Synagogue Service. 299. Jewish Parties. 300. The Pharisees. 301. The Sadducees. 302. The Essenes. 303. Zealots and Herodians. 304. The Conception of God. 305. The Ethical Ideals. 306. The Messianic Hopes. 307. The Messianic Conception of the Suffering Servant. 308. Summary.

Suggestions for Study.

Selected Bibliography 334

MAPS

The Old Testament World. Frontispiece.

Modern Palestine, with Ancient Towns and Highways. Facing page 32.

United and Divided Hebrew Kingdoms. Facing page 122.

Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires. Facing page 136.

Palestine During the Greek and Roman Periods. Facing page 292.

PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT

For some time past there has been a growing conviction of the need of a more complete and comprehensive study of the Bible in all the colleges. Quite recently the matter has received new emphasis and practical direction. A complete course of Bible study has been outlined by a joint committee representing the Eastern and Western sections of the Association of College Instructors in the Bible, the departments of colleges and universities and of teacher training of the Religious Education Association, the Student Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A., and Sunday School Council.

In harmony with the action just noted The Abingdon Press has arranged for the prompt publication of a series of Bible study texts. The complete course will include the following books: Old Testament History, by Prof. Ismar J. Peritz, of Syracuse University; New Testament History, by Dr. Harris Franklin Rail, President of Iliff School of Theology; The Bible as Literature, by Prof. Irving F. Wood and Prof. Elihu Grant, of Smith College ; Social Institutions and Ideals of the Bible, by Prof. Theodore G. Soares, University of Chicago; and The History and Principles of Religious Education, by Prof. F. H. Swift, University of Minnesota.

The volumes on New Testament History and The Bible as Literature have been in use during the college year 1914- 1915. Professor Peritz's volume on Old Testament History and Professor Soares' Social Institutions and Ideals of the Bible are now published. The last book in the series, The History and Principles of Religious Education by Professor Swift, is in preparation and will be ready for use in the second semester of 1915-1916. These books have been prepared with a view to the requirements of the college course i 4 PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT

and the needs of the students. The authors are acknowledged experts in their respective fields — scholars and teachers of wide repute. The publishers cordially commend this course to the attention of Bible students and teachers everywhere.

The Abingdon Press.

Preface

The present treatment of Old Testament history aims to conform to the object of the series as handbooks to Bible study. The Bible itself is, accordingly, the main primary source. In each section the biblical text, as indicated in the margin, is the basis of the discussion, and requires the first attention of the student. Where the biblical material is most abundant the history is consequently the fullest. But it has become increasingly evident that the material of the Bible is not chronologically arranged, but that accounts centuries apart in their origin and point of view are often found side by side or interwoven with each other. The recognition of this fact is the result of the historical and scientific method of the Bible study of our day. It will account for the order and method here adopted. If the reason for the procedure is not always fully stated, it is due to the design of the series not to deal so much with the process as with the results achieved. Only where silence would leave the biblical situation obscure was it deemed necessary to enter into the discussion of critical questions, and then only in the briefest way possible. The logical movement of Old Testament history which is the outcome of the critical use of the biblical material proves ultimately its strongest justification.

But it should not be forgotten that there is strict practical religious value in biblical criticism. For it has become evident that the uncritical use of the Bible in taking everything just as it stands has led in large measure to a distortion of God's way in dealing with man. Biblical criticism, which accounts for many abnormal situations in Old Testament history, renders an important service not only in making us see just exactly what the Bible is, but also in making us see that God dealt with people in biblical times very much in the same way as he deals with us now.

A source of information of highest value in Bible study,

16 PREFACE

and ranking next to the Bible itself, are the discoveries in Bible lands with which our time has been remarkably favored. Wherever possible, attention has been called to the light from the monuments and other finds upon the biblical passage under discussion.

The purpose of Religious Education which underlies this series has naturally determined the choice in the many interests which the Bible offers. The emphasis has consequently been placed upon the distinguished personalities, the religious, moral, and social ideas, and fundamental institutions of the Old Testament, rather than upon mere historical events ; and the latter have been dealt with only in so far as they are needed to explain the historical background of the former.

Underlying the entire treatment of the subject is the conviction that "God, having of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in a Son," which means that the Old Testament history is a divine revelation preparatory to and culminating in the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, the Prophet of Nazareth. It is, therefore, in the light of the highest stage of the development of divine revelation that the values of Old Testament ideals are here estimated. This will account for the frankness with which the lower moral and spiritual ideals, or, in other words, the faults of the saints of the Old Testament, as well as their virtues, have been pointed out. For he that lives in the broad daylight of divine revelation has no need to fear the dangers that lurk in the twilight or the dark. The best evidence of the divine character of biblical religion lies, not in its inception or earlier stages, but in its culmination.

The object held in view was to obtain clear-cut moral and spiritual ideals for the religious and moral education of our own time.

Syracuse University, 1915.

INTRODUCTORY

Introduction

i. Our Interest in Old Testament History. Old

Testament history is the history of the Hebrews who have prolonged their existence for over three thousand years to the present time on a high level of civilization. The history of such a people deserves our study for its own sake as prompted by our interest in the human race. The outcome of this history is a collection of literature which is full of references to ancient life, and to those interested in antiquity Old Testament history offers a rich field. But the Hebrews did not live merely for themselves; men like Moses, David, or Isaiah have affected the history of civilization, particularly our own civilization, and if we would know the sources whence came many of the priceless contributions to our civilization, Old Testament history will be to us of great historical interest. Yet, after all, our chief interest is religious. If the Greeks had the genius for art, and the Romans for law, the Hebrews had the genius for religion. The conceptions of a personal God who revealed himself in history, a divinely authoritative code of morals, and the hope of a universal kingdom of God are the contributions of this genius to the well-being of humanity. But this religious interest is enhanced by the fact that Christianity has its roots in Old Testament history. Christ's personal life and teachings presuppose the religious and ethical ideas of the Old Testament. The new element that Christianity brings is represented as the fulfillment of Old Testament hopes and promises, and throughout the entire New Testament the Old Testament is regarded as the preparation for the complete divine revelation in the person of Christ. For this reason an intelligent appreciation of

20 INTRODUCTION

the character and mission of Christianity requires a knowledge of Old Testament history.

2. Main Divisions of Old Testament History. Hebrew history is thus predominantly religious history. Its political aspects are comparatively insignificant, and consist of a series of conquests by Assyria, Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. But while these conquests bring Israel into the vortex of international movements, they are significant mainly for what drift they gave to the development of Hebrew religion, the divinely assigned task in the making of civilization.

With regard to this religious tendency in Hebrew history, we may divide it into three main periods, as f ollows :

I. The Formative Period, extending from its earliest beginnings to the Death of Solomon, 933 B. C. During this period the Hebrew people passed through the various stages of their material development until it had reached its height under David and Solomon.

II. The Period of the Prophets, extending from the Division of the Monarchy, upon the death of Solomon, to the Restoration in the time of Cyrus, 933-538 B. C. During this period the Hebrew state passed through various stages of dissolution, ending in the exile. It gave the prophets of Israel the occasion to view religious truth apart from the national life. It aided them to attain to their highest conceptions in religion and morals, consisting in a pure ethical monotheism, that is, the belief in one personal and holy God, and a broad universalism.

III. The Period of the Priests, extending from the

Restoration in the time of Cyrus to Herod I, 538 B. C.

4 A. D. During this period the Jewish national life developed into a church rather than a state, into a hierarchy instead of a monarchy. The emphasis was upon the Law, ritualism, and a narrow exclusivism. The result was the formation of petty sects, each with its own national hopes and aspirations.

INTRODUCTION 21

1. Consider the various interests that call for the study of Old Testament history as compared with other ancient or modern peoples, and note the particular religious and moral interest.

2. Commit to memory the main divisions of Old Testament history, with the dates ; and regard it as the frame to be filled in with living facts in the subsequent study.

Chapter I The Sources Of Old Testament History

3. The Biblical Sources. The biblical sources in their present form consist of canonical, apocryphal, and pseudepigraphal collections :

1. The Canonical Scriptures the Hebrews arranged on a different principle from that in the Greek and Latin Bibles, followed in the English Bible, and the arrangement is as follows :

(1) The Law. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.

(2) The Prophets, (a) The "Former" Prophets — Joshua, Judges, First and Second Samuel, First and Second Kings, (b) The "Latter" Prophets— (a) "Major" Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; (b) "Minor" Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.

(3) The Writings. Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, First and Second Chronicles.

2. The Apocrypha contain : First and Second Esdras, Tobit, Judith, The Rest of Esther, The Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, The Song of the Three Holy Children, The History of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses, First and Second Maccabees. These writings, which in many respects resemble the canonical books, the Jews regarded as of inferior inspiration; but the Greek Bible in common use in the early church contained them intermingled with the canonical books.

3. The Pseudepigrapha is the title given to some apocryphal books not included in the Greek Bible or English editions of the Apocrypha, which include : Third and Fourth Maccabees, The Psalms of Solomon, The Book of Enoch, The Assumption of Moses, The Apocalypse of Baruch, The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Book of Jubilees, The Ascension of Isaiah, and the Sibylline Oracles. They belong to the closing centuries of the Old Testament era, and as products of it require attention.

4. The Use of the Biblical Sources. In writing any history our first task is to inquire where we shall find the materials for it. The answer for the Old Testament seems very simple. These are given in the books of the Old Testament. As soon, however, as we examine these writings closely we find that they cannot be used in this simple and direct manner. A careful study reveals certain facts upon which practically all scholars are now agreed.

1. These writings are not simply history, and were not intended as such. They were written for a moral and religious purpose, to show how Jehovah had guided and helped the nation, and by the use of the past to warn the people of sin and to teach them the right way. In one sense they are sermons rather than history as usually conceived.

2. Most of these writings have had a long literary history, and earlier accounts have been combined by later writers, while still later writers revised and edited the material, making changes to harmonize the different narratives. This makes the task of the historian somewhat more difficult. He must tryj as far as possible, to discover the original sources and to determine which elements are the more authentic and the more valuable; nor can he neglect to make use of the valuable material contained in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, the main sources of information for the two centuries preceding the Christian era.

5. Classification of the Biblical Sources. The biblical

SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 25

material is substantially the literature of the Hebrew people for the period under discussion in which all the various types of literary composition are represented. We may distinguish six types : (1) Law; (2) History; (3) Prophecy; (4) Liturgy; (5) Wisdom; (6) Apocalypse.

6. The Hebrew Laws. Among the earliest literary products of the Hebrews we must place their laws, starting in simple collections and reaching the form of extensive codes of law. These codes are now imbedded in the historical narratives of Exodus-Deuteronomy, yet not so but that it is possible to distinguish them. There are seven such codes: (1) The Decalogue, Exod 20. 1-17; Deut 5. 6-21, found in two slightly varying rescensions, and embodying moral requirements; (2) The Ritual Decalogue, Exod 34. 10-26, consisting of simple requirements relating to the religious cult; (3) The Social Code, Deut 2J. 15-26, relating chiefly to social duties; (4) The Book of the Covenant (so called Exod 24. 7), Exod 20. 22 to 23. 19, containing both civil and ritual laws in greater detail; (5) The D enter onomic Law, Deut 12 to 26. 28; which is an evident expansion of the Book of the Covenant; (6) The Lazv of Holiness, Lev 17 to 26, containing mainly ritual legislation, and characterized by enforcing the requirements on the ground of Jehovah's holiness (19. 2); (7) The Priests' Code, embracing all the other legislation in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers not already assigned, being the most extensive, and supplementing them all.

A comparison of these codes reveals the fact that they are bodies of laws that originated during the various epochs in Old Testament history, covering the nine centuries between Moses and Ezra, illustrating the various stages of the development in Israel's political, social, and religious life.

7. Old Testament Historical Literature. The making of history precedes the writing of history, and the telling of heroic deeds by word of mouth precedes the more formal recording of historical events. It was so among the

Hebrews. A long period of oral tradition preceded that of written history. The stories of the patriarchs, the achievements of Moses, and the heroic deeds of the conquerors of the promised land were first told or sung by word of mouth.

The beginnings of the writing of Hebrew history in poetry may be found in the Song of Deborah (Judg 5) and the songs in Num 21, taken from "the book of the Wars of Jehovah," and Exod 15. 21.

In the writing of history in prose we may distinguish the following stages :

1. The accounts of the events leading to the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy, contained in the older element of 1 Sam to 1 Kings 2. It is in the reign of David that we first meet an official recorder.