The islanders of the Pacific; or, The children of the sun

Front matter

"SjU

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

Preface

By unwritten law a preface should consist of apologies, so I shall therefore at least be in the fashion. But, I think, it is seldom an author has to apologize for his Greek accents or his spelling mistakes. For the former, on a few words in Chapter XVI, I candidly confess — if they are wrong, and I should be astonished if they are correct — that my Greek has grown rusty since the days when I wrestled with Xenophon, and I am far from the land of dictionaries. For the latter I can but say that distance has likewise intervened to withhold from me the correction of " proofs," and the spelling of Polynesian words will defy any usual proof-reader, learned though he may be.

There is another matter. While striving always to confine myself to my own experiences and my own observations and notes, I have yet found it unavoidable in a book of this sort to make reference at times to the works of other authors who have preceded me in the same field, especially when dealing with the early days in the Pacific. Wherever possible I have made due acknowledgment, and should any have by chance been omitted I would here crave forgiveness for the same. And this also applies to the use of photographs for illustrations. In any case, if I have used a strange fact or incident recorded by a previous investigator, I have generally attempted to fit a solution of my own to the problem, and after all it is the solving of the riddle that is important. The solution may not always have been correct, but at all events it may suggest a new train of thought to others, more competent than myself, to work at. I remember once hearing an eminent scientist, in rising to speak on a paper that had just been read by one of our coming men, say : " This paper has the great merit of being ' suggestive '." And the lecturer told me afterwards that he felt that this was praise indeed.

I have tried to work out answers to the natives' problems from the natives' point of view ; to put myself for a moment in their place, to think with their mind, and I feel that my long years of residence among them, in some degree, enables me to do this. To have to attack a native problem, shackled by the convention of our own way of thinking, is a great handicap, of which I have tried whenever possible to divest myself. I may not always have succeeded — many of my answers are no doubt wrong — but we are none of us infallible, and least of all do I consider myself so, for ethnology to me is only a hobby.

But if my scientific methods do not always follow in the beaten path, my interest in the natives is a very real one, perhaps because they appeal to the child that is present in all of us. They are the " Peter Pans " of humanity, and if in governing them we remember this great will be our ultimate reward.

T. R. ST.-J.

Antigua,

British West Indies.

Introduction

To many of us the Pacific conjures up visions of sunflecked coral islands set in an azure sea, of cloudless skies and scented, off-shore breezes ; or perhaps of warm, tropic nights with some shadowy palm-tree (" that giraffe of vegetables " as Stevenson called it) fantastically bowing to the great silver moon, while the distant drum-taps of some village dance, now quick, now slow, come rhythmically floating across the lagoon. To all who have once been swayed by the intoxicating charm of the Pacific there is a memory never to be forgotten, a voice whose seductive call appeals to all alike. To some the magic of it rises even in the years long after, and draws them irresistibly back. I have known the rough trader, who has made enough to live on, at last board with relief a steamer for " home," a country where " a white man can

live ; away from these d d natives, the heat, and

the flies." But he has been back again within twelve months. I have seen the ex-civil servant, who had looked forward through all his service to the time when he could retire on his pension to England, come down the gangway of the incoming steamer with a little apologetic smile, " Just to visit the islands once more " ; but his visit has ended in buying a bungalow, a few acres of ground, and a place in the sun !

This is the Pacific as we know it, the Pacific as it appeals to the white man. But there is another Pacific, of the time before the white man set foot in it, a closed-in ocean over which the brooding solitude of untold centuries hung like a cloud. There were men living in that world then, men of a mysterious past and origin that has only in recent years been more than guessed at — and the manner of their lives and the race from whom they sprung I have made a small attempt in this book to disclose. It is only a small attempt, and I am only one of many who have been striving to the same end. The whole subject is so vast that if in these pages I shall at least have given some new ideas, hinted at some fresh possibilities, thrown a new fight, however small, on an old subject, I shall feel that my object has been well attained. For without the impetus of suggestion, without the loosening of discussion, the sum of human knowledge would remain at a standstill. Some of my theories will not be acceptable to all — new theories never have been, or they would not be new — but I would remind those who disagree with what I have written that nothing is easier than a destructive criticism, nothing harder than to construct a system which is feasible, rational, and acceptable to all. But on the whole I do not feel guilty of overturning any main principles.

Above all, I have endeavoured to avoid the stilted dogmatism, the dry-as-dust phraseology, the microscopic inquiries of the narrow pedant. The Pacific, taken as a whole, calls for a wide outlook and broad treatment ; taken in detail it is apt to overwhelm the investigator. Though it must never be forgotten

INTRODUCTION 9

that without the patient investigator of small sideissues the broader treatment would be impossible. This book does not pretend to be more than a popular treatise — " Ethnology from an Easy Chair," if you will — and dealing, for the first time, I believe, with the Pacific as a whole ; and as such I give it for what it is worth.

In it at least will be found some of my own experiences, and in some of the islands as I have found them. And these may be new to the general reader ; though there are very few islands now that some white man or other has not explored. I remember an amusing story told me by Sir Fielding Clarke, late Chief Justice of Jamaica, who once held a similar post in the Western Pacific. It appears that a certain captain in the Navy, of a scientific turn of mind, was cruising through those waters, and came upon a small island which was named, but entered up as " ? uninhabited." As they dropped anchor they spied a native in a canoe fishing in the harbour, and some houses peeping from among the trees. " Now," said the captain to his officers, " no one is to go ashore till I do. Here are some new natives not yet recorded, and I hope to be able to get some interesting impressions." The canoe crept alongside, and the native called out in broken English : " What feller ship that ? " The captain was disappointed to think that the people must have met whites before, but cheered up at the suggestion that anyhow they would still be very useful scientific material, fresh, and practically uncontaminated by " civilization." So he called out over the side : " This is 'a man-of-war. Come aboard." The simple native gave a start, called back over his shoulder, " No b y

fear," and paddled hastily away !

Yes. I fear the islands have all been " discovered " now, and soon it will be too late to observe the native customs in their original state. The missionary has much to answer for, and such vandalism as the following is unforgivable, because so unnecessary. " The appearance of the females " (says the Rev. Wm. Ellis, speaking of some new converts who had adopted the ideas — and raiment — of " civilization "), " was equally interesting ; most of them wore a neat and tasteful bonnet ! "

They smashed the carved stone images to powder, and burned the wooden ones. A few of the stone ones escaped, such as those heard of years afterwards used as seats in the church at Raivaivai Island (Austral Group). (Are they still there, one wonders ?) But when we think things over, the missionaries were not entirely to blame. They felt it necessary to remove all danger of the natives reverting to heathenism (their old religion had decayed and degenerated so much that it was high time a newer and better one made its appearance), and a reversion to heathenism, looked at from every point of view, would have been disastrous. That the views of the missionaries were narrow, and their methods crude, was not so much their fault as that of the period they lived in. Had any other set of white men — government officials, planters, what you will — of that ugly Victorian period controlled the natives they would probably also have dressed them in " neat and tasteful bonnets," and taught them to curtsey !

INTRODUCTION 11

But the bonnets were only a passing phase. The customs of their forbears were too strong for such innovations. From a scientific point of view, if not from any other, we can be thankful for that rigid law of " custom " in the Pacific that has kept so many of the ancient habits and rites of the people untouched, or at least recognizable, after so many years of contact with the whites. Because of this we are able still to pick up the clues that, added together, have helped us in reconstructing the picture of the Pacific as it used to be, in ascertaining the history of that particular civilization, a history which, if for nothing else, is valuable because in some small way it helps us to understand the history of the civilization of the world.

And the history of the Pacific, and especially of the Polynesians, shows us a people who have degenerated from a noble race in the past, and who may be regenerated again, for it is in our hands to do so. There is nothing more harmful, nothing more weak and criminal, than the canting cry : " The Pacific Islanders are dying out ; what is the use of bothering ? " They need not die out. There used to be a vast population in all the island groups. There is no disputing it. Then the inevitable happened. Over-population and shortage of food (for they have never been a provident race, and have always planted food with no thought for the morrow, and with methods of agriculture wasteful to a degree). Then, in Micronesia, for instance, infanticide was a law of the land. Then, infanticide was a custom.

Moreover, at first they were a peaceful nation. Then, sometimes due to this overcrowding, sometimes to other reasons, they became a war-like one ; Mariner shows how wars started in Tonga. Killing was the order of the day. The tide of national decrease had well set in.

Then came the white man, and another inevitable result. Measles, whooping-cough, all sorts of trivial complaints, attacked them with fatal violence, as worn-out diseases striking new soil will always do. And the decrease went on more rapidly than ever, though the wars were stopped.

But now the reaction has come. The " foreign " diseases are beginning to become worn-out diseases with the natives too ; and, moreover, the foreigners' doctors and hospitals, and hygiene are stretching out helping hands, and there is no reason now why the natives should not steadily increase, as they have been doing for the last decade in the well-governed colony of Fiji, of which I am now thinking. That the recent epidemic of influenza has undone much of the good work is regrettable, but not unexpected. It played just as much havoc, if not more, in Europe, and proves nothing.

No, */ the natives are given their chance they can increase, and can be made good and useful citizens — an asset to the Empire — and the matter lies in our hands.

Some one, I think it was Sir Basil Thomson, has pointed out that there is no reason why a mixture of English and Polynesian should not produce a good stamp of man. I uphold this in every particular. The half-caste boat builder, mechanic, carpenter, is already the backbone of the artizan class in Fiji. He

INTRODUCTION 13

has the brains, the skill, and the strength. He is lacking only in initiative, in will power, in energy. Give him the education, the impetus, the incentive, and he will prove a power in the land, a fitting one to carry on the evolution of the colony.

Thinking of Fiji has made my pen diverge into this channel, but what I have said of Fiji applies to the whole Pacific. And the pages of this book will, I trust, explain why a mixture of Polynesian and European — be he Englishman, Frenchman, American— should produce a better stamp of man than a mixture of white man and African negro, or white man and Chinese. Because the Polynesian and the European had in the remote ages of the past one common ancestry, a kinship of common blood ; slight, it is true, and dating from the days of Sun-worship in England, but still faintly discernible in certain little ways. And as to how this came about I will now endeavour to show.

T. R. ST.-JOHNSTON.

Contents

PAGE

Preface 5

Introduction 7

CHAPTER I Outline of Migrations 21

Different types in the Pacific — Earliest whites — Native migrations to the Pacific.

CHAPTER II Primitive Forms of Worship 28

Sun-worship associated with Fertility — And with Fire — the Sky-god — Cremation — The Sun the home of the dead — Ancestor-worship — Disposal of the dead — Evolution of the Pyramid — Sacrifices — The Phallic-cult — The megalithic race.

CHAPTER VII Glimpses of History (continued) 95

Tahiti to Hawaii — Dispersal from Fiji — Tonga to Cook Islands — Samoa to Tonga — The trilithons of Tonga — Tangiia the wanderer — Polynesians to Easter Island — The Menehune people — Human sacrifices — The king-priests — Melanesians to Easter Island — The Semitic influence — Fate of " drifts."

CHAPTER VIII Burial Customs 113

Ghosts of the dead — Platform exposure — And preservation of relics — The sanctity of the head — Secret Societies — Embalming — The Fire-cult — Cremation — Canoe-exposure — The " ferryman."

CHAPTER IX Royalty and the " Tabu " 134

Insignia of royalty — Fans and feathers — Fillets and breast-plates— The red colour— The " tabu "—The " tama " — Water removes the " tabu."

CONTENTS 17

Chapter X Pagb

First-Fruit Offerings to the Son . . . .158

The Sun requires sacrifices and " first-fruits " — May-day in England — The Phallic-cult — Brides secluded from the Sun — " Tatu " — Fire- walking — Perpetual fires.

CHAPTER XI Other Offerings to the Sun 176

The sacred turtle — And pig — Child sacrifices — And adult sacrifices.

CHAPTER XII Cannibalism . . . . . . . .189

Origin of cannibalism — A cannibal ceremony in Fiji — Tainted meat eaten — Whites eaten — Cause of wholesale cannibalism — Huge cannibal feasts — Cruelty — Ceremonial ritual influenced by early Sun-worship.

CHAPTER XIII Totems — Kava — Names 208

Totem ideas — Object of Secret Societies — Totems usually personal — Kava — Its preparation — Origin of the custom — From the Mediterranean — The bowls were " tabu " — Its association with the Sun-people — Names and their " tabu " — The Koroi ceremony — Literal elevation of Chiefs.

CHAPTER XIV Stone Remains ........ 324

Dolmens as sun-clocks — Found in the Pacific — Sacred " pavements " — Evolution of the Pyramid — The " mara " — Stone causeways — Captain Cook's deification — Temples at Hawaii. 2

Chapter XV Page

Stone Remains (continued) 241

Huge buildings possible by unlimited labour — Stone vaults — Trilithons — Stone house-foundations — Coronation stones — Stones animated by the gods — Generative power in stones — Cromlechs — Common likeness of images in the Eastern Pacific — Gods in Central Pacific of unhewn stone — Samoan gods.

CHAPTER XVI Language and Place-Names ..... 259

Polynesian language of Turanian type — And the same throughout Polynesia — An " Armenoid " people invaded India — And passed on to the Pacific — In Western Asia they had come under Semitic influence — Dialects — Various words traced through to Europe — And Africa.

CHAPTER XVII Partly Anthropological ...... 274

Both Polynesians and Melanesians reached America — Geological possibilities — The Dravidians — Connection with the Melanesians — Melanesian evidence in the Eastern Pacific — The Menehune.

CHAPTER XVIII Conclusions ........ 283

Both Melanesians and Polynesians were Sun-worshippers — Migrations to America — The Peruvians — The " fair people " — Semitic strain — The " dark people " — Migrations to New Zealand — Migrations from China and Japan — The Malays — And the Europeans.

Brief description of the Island Groups of the Pacific.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

island canoes ...... Frontispiece.

FACING PAGE

IMPLEMENTS FROM THE SOLOMON ISLANDS ... 24

THE CURVILINEAR ART OF NEW ZEALAND AND ONE OR TWO

STONE PYRAMID AT TAHITI . .... 34

MARQUESAN STONE IMAGE ...... 78

EASTER ISLAND STONE IMAGE IN BRITISH MUSEUM . . 78

PERUVIAN STONE IMAGE ...... 78

LONG-EARED STONE IMAGE, EASTER ISLAND ... 82

" TATU " OF A MAORI CHIEF : HORI GATA OF TAURANGA,

NEW ZEALAND ....... 84

A DANCE IN OTAHEITE, SHOWING " THE LACED, SKIN- COVERED DRUMS." FROM A FIRST EDITION OF CAPTAIN COOK'S VOYAGES ....... 94

ON THE COAST OF TAVEUNI ISLAND (Fiji). THE MOUNTAIN- TOP HIDDEN IN THE MIST ..... 98

THE HA'AMONGA, THE GREAT TRILITHON AT TONGA . . 102

AN OLD MANAHIKI LADY WITH HER HUSBAND, THE LATE JOE THOMPSON, THE AMERICAN HERMIT OF VATU VARU ISLAND . . . . . . . . .Il6

MAORI CHIEFTAINESS BEING SALUTED (THE " HONGI ") BY A RELATIVE, AND HOLDING THE BAT-SHAPED JADE " MERf " IN HER HAND ...... 120

NEW GUINEA MASKS ....... I24

RE-MADE HUMAN HEAD FITTED TO ROUGH MODEL OF A MAN.

NEW HEBRIDES ....... 132

WOODEN MODEL OF BONITO-FISH CONTAINING A SKULL.

SANTA ANNA, SOLOMON ISLANDS .... I32

MOROS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ARRANGING " SUN- SHADES " FOR A SPECIAL PROCESSION . . . I36 19

FACING PAGE

MAORI CHIEF HOLDING " HANI " AND WEARING HUIA

A PRIEST, MARQUESAS, WITH MUCH TATUED LEGS, ALSO

WEARING HEADDRESS OF HUMAN HAIR . . . I38

PAPUAN CHILDREN, PAINTED, AT HANUABATA . . . 168

A TATUED MAORI CHIEF, WEARING FLAX CLOAK . 1 72

ONE IDEA OF THE GREAT SUN-GOD, TANGAROA, THE CREATOR,

FROM THE AUSTRAL GROUP, TO SHOW THE " BUDDING

OFF " OF MANKIND ...... 184

AN EASTERN FIJIAN ....... I98

BIRD AND FISH CARVING. GAMAL AT AHIA. ULAWA,

SOLOMON ISLANDS ...... 208

NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN TOTEM POLE . . . . 2IO

CARVING, PROBABLY TOTEM, FROM NEW ZEALAND . .210

DOLMEN IN CORNWALL ....... 228

DOLMEN IN THE NEW HEBRIDES ..... 228

MAKING SINNET, FIJI ....... 242

REPRESENTATIVES OF GODS, COOK ISLANDS . . . 248

WOODEN GOD FROM COOK ISLANDS ..... 252

LAU ISLAND TYPE. BLEND OF POLYNESIAN AND MELANESIAN 268

MELANESIAN FROM NEW BRITAIN ..... 274

MELANESIAN FROM TANNA ...... 274

NEGRITO GIRL FROM THE PHILIPPINES .... 276

NEGRITO MIXTURE. FIJIAN ...... 276

MELANESIAN FROM MALAITA ISLAND, SOLOMON GROUP . 280

A MAN OF OPA, NEW HEBRIDES ..... 280

CAROLINE ISLANDER ....... 282

GILBERT ISLANDER ....... 282

ELLICE ISLANDER ....... 282

TAKING UP THE VESSEL TO CATCH THE PALM-SAP FOR

Maps.

SUGGESTED TRACK OF THE " SEA-FARERS ' THE PACIFIC ISLANDS .

TO POLYNESIA 296 AT END

Chapter I An Outline Of Migrations, Native And White, Into The Pacific

Every traveller in the Pacific, whether on the beaten routes of the mail-steamers or on the wandering byways of the private yacht, cannot but notice the contrasting types of the islanders he meets, as his ship calls at each of the palm-clad reef-encircled groups set like a string of jewels in that warm tropic sea. Island after island is the same, a faint shimmering haze on the horizon, clearing to a line of black dots with tufted palms against the sky-line, and then merging into a solid mass of cool green with white beaches and scattered houses ; with finally the rattling of the hawser as the ship glides to her resting-place in the deep blue waters. But how different are the dwellers on the shores, how different the faces that greet you. Should you be journeying from West to East you find, with certain exceptions, the little dark negroid men, sullen and unapproachable ; then the taller and less dark men, who will show a higher degree of intelligence, and finally the tall handsome Polynesians, a race of chiefs, fair of countenance and frank in mien, who are among the most hospitable nations in the world. No question of climate, no consideration of fertility of soil in islands such as these, which are practically the same, can be held to account for such striking differences, and the origin of these different peoples has been one of the puzzles of the scientific world since the white man first burst into the confines of the Pacific. I use the word " burst " here as the natives use it, for with their poetical ideas they — so some philologists say — have coined a word for the white man, " Papalangi," J or those who burst through or tread down the sky at the far horizon. It will not be out of place here to mention what traces from myth and legend remain to us of the early appearances of the white man into this closed-in world. Bancroft's dictum might well be quoted : " It is now a recognized principle in philosophy that no religious belief, however crude, nor any historical traditions, however absurd, can be held by the majority of a people for any considerable time as true, without having in the beginning some foundation in fact." But we can go further than this in the Pacific, for the oral traditions of the natives are wonderfully full. and complete — as they should be when the memorizing of them was a science (nay, more, a part of an intricate system of religion taught by the priests) — and have been found, by tests which will be described in a later chapter, to be extraordinarily accurate, even when

1 I regard the alternative explanation, given by some people, that the word was a corruption of " Far, far land " which the early whites told the natives they came from, as childish.

LEGENDS OF "EARLY WHITES" 23

carried back for many generations. There is, by the way, a beautifully carved and polished Maori staff, decorated with symbolic devices, now in the British Museum. This staff was associated with the science of genealogies, and used by the priests in connection with the study of this subject, each protuberance upon it having a special significance.

Now, Fornander, the famous ethnologist and judge of Hawaii, who lived for nearly half a century among the natives, and married a Hawaiian princess, carefully studied these traditions and genealogies, and testing them one against another (as the Polynesian Society of New Zealand are now doing), and working backwards along the known pedigrees he found fairly conclusive evidence that about the twelfth century a ship, with whites on it, arrived at Oahu Island ; and this is probably the same ship in which, in another " national historical legend of Hawaii," Paumahua of Oahu " brought back two white gods or priests." Such an unusual event naturally burned itself deep into the memories of these people, and the shadowy tradition of it has been preserved in the priest-lore through all these generations.

Now whence came these two mysterious white " gods," too early for adventurous Spaniards ? From the West, North, or East ? There was another legend of the Hawaiians that their well-known deity " Lono " was a white god who had left them, but with a promise to return again in a big ship ; and when Captain Cook came — the first white man for many generations — in a big ship, such as they had lost all ideas of, they regarded him with awe as this " Lono " returned again to them. (In just the same way in North America there were faint memories of whites who promised " some day to return " ; and these are thought to have been early Vikings.)

In later, more historical, times a white man and a woman were saved from the wreckage of a big ship, and the probable period of this, by genealogical reckoning, is estimated to be about the sixteenth century ; which corresponds to the records that, I believe, have been unearthed in Spain to show that one of the squadron of Saavedra, the Spanish commander, was wrecked and lost in the Northern Pacific about that time.

Then Captain Cook, when he first called at Hawaii to " discover " it for the civilized world, found a broken half of a metal sword preserved as a great treasure by one of the chiefs. This, among a nation who knew not metal, was a remarkable discovery. (By-theway, an illustration in this book shows a wooden sword of Melanesia that might have been modelled on the lines of a Roman sword ; and the well-known wooden " sword-clubs " of Samoa are of much the same pattern. The native immigrants to the Pacific are generally thought to have left Asia about the late Roman period, but I think the pattern is probably only a coincidence.)

Finally, there is the extraordinary puzzle of the famous Hawaiian helmets. These, made of the sacred red feathers closely sewn on to a network covering, superimposed on a basket-work frame, are very like the peculiar shape of an ancient Graeco-Roman helmet, which again was somewhat copied by the Spaniards

* * "* *»~ %> ^ 3?

Hi

ROMAN-SHAPED WOODEN SWORD, CARVED WOODEN FOOD BOWLS, SACRED ALLIGATOR SKULL, AND TWO MAGIC STONES FROM THE SOLOMON ISLANDS.

{Photo by Author, by permission of the Melanesia!! Mission,)

END OF LEGENDARY PERIOD 25

of the Middle Ages. It has, however, been pointed out that had there been any close association with the Spanish voyagers there would surely have been found traces, in these long-memoried Hawaiians, of legends of the Virgin Mary or the Cross in connection with these white men, as the early Spaniards made a special point of implanting their religion on the South Sea peoples. But of this there is not the slightest trace. On the other hand, though the Hawaiians had no metal, they had a name for it ; while the helmets of this mysterious Asiatic-sprung race have an even more striking likeness to the head-dresses of the ancient Tibetan priests 1 This was, I believe, first pointed out by Newman, and there is a remarkable pair of illustrations, showing this resemblance, in his book. Sir Hercules Read believes that they were intended to represent a peculiar type of coiffure. Probably the matter will never be satisfactorily settled.

As regards the known Spanish voyages of Mendafia, Quiros, and others between 1567 and 1606, the romance of these lies in the fact that the wonderful, though much exaggerated, " golden lands of King Solomon " were discovered by them, and lost again for nearly two hundred years, being regarded in the interval by all geographers as a myth, and therefore (literally) removed from the maps 1 With the re-finding of these islands, and the thorough investigation in a scientific manner by Captain Cook of other Pacific groups, the legendary period of " early whites " may be said to cease.

To return to the native races. Up till a decade or so ago there was a generally accepted idea that the natives of the Pacific should be divided into three main classes, Melanesians to the north-west and west of Fiji, Polynesians to the east and north-east of Fiji (and also to include New Zealand), and Micronesians to the north of Fiji.

But Dr. Rivers working in Melanesia, Sir Basil Thomson in the Fiji-Tonga district, and the members of the Polynesian < Society in the various Polynesian groups, have thrown much new light on the subject, though there is still much to be unravelled before any definite and final conclusions can be arrived at. Step by step, in an extraordinarily thorough and painstaking manner, Dr. Rivers, on his expedition to Melanesia a few years ago, dissected out from a mass of heterogeneous custom, myth, and folk-lore, a clear and comprehensive picture of the successive immigrations into that part of the Pacific, and after exhaustively going into every aspect of the question came to the conclusion that on to the indigenous aboriginal people (probably of a negroid, or even negrito, type) there were grafted three general waves of immigrants, namely (i) an immigration of a people who buried their dead in a sitting position (these probably also extended their migration into Polynesia) ; (2) an immigration of a people who introduced kava-driaking as one of their religious ceremonies (these people held the cult of Ancestor-worship, totemism, and the tabu), and they also extended into Polynesia ; and (3) a final immigration of a betel-chewing people, head-hunters, who sought trophies to offer as sacrifices to their ancestors.