Etruscan Roman remains in popular tradition;

Front matter

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

Part First. Gods Ant) Go'blins

PAGE I

Introduction .....

CHAP.

I. TINIA TERAM6 BUSCHET IMPUSA DELLA MORTE SIERO NORCIA, THE GODDESS OF

TRUFFLES APLU TURANNA PANO . ...... I 8

II. MASO MANIA DELLA NOTTE ......... 4Q

III. FERONIA SILVIANO PALO ESTA CARMENTA IL SENTIERO . . . . -54

IV. FAFLON LO SPIRITO DELLA CONTENTEZZA CORREDOIO ORCO TESANA SPULVIERC

V. LARES, LASA, AND LASS1 LOSNA LARONDA LEMURI TAGO FANIO QUERCIOLA

VI. CARRADORA VIRA BERGOIA BUGHIN GANZIO ALPENA ...... I07

VII. TITUNO ALBINA VERBIO DUSIO REMLE JANO, MEANA, MONTULGA, TALENA PICO 122

VIII. FLORIA RA BOVO ATTILIO LA BELLA MART A DIANA AND HERODIAS OFFERINGS

IX. IL SPIRITO DEL SCALDINO ARTEMISIA RED CAP OF SORCERY IN ANCIENT ART — THE

GODDESS OF THE FOUR WINDS, l'eRBA ROSOLACCIO MADONNA DEL FUOCO LA

X. CUPRA WALNUT WITCHES WITCHES AND WITCHCRAFT ZANCHI HAIL AND CLOUD

MEN— STORIES OF WITCHES AND GOBLINS WIZARD SAINTS . . 182 vi CONTENTS.

Part Second. Incq4ntc4ti0nis, Divination, Medicine, Ant) Amulets

CHAP. PAGE

I. LA STALLA DI MAIALE THE SPELL OF THE IVY AND THE STATUE THE SPELL OF

THE HARE THE SPELL OF THE SPIDER THE SPELL OF THE GREEN LIZARD . • 2 S'

II. BIRDS AND TREASURES THE SPELL OF THE FALLING STAR THE SPELL OF THE ACORNS

THE SPELL OF THE SWALLOW MINOR CURES FROM MARCELLUS THE THREE

WISE MEN OF THE EAST AND THE WITCH-MEDALS ...... 27°

III. THE EXORCISM OF DEATH THE SPELL OF THE CRADLE DIVINATION WITH LEAD

DIVINATION BY OIL PYROMANCY AND INCENSE THE SPELL OF THE LAMP . . 3O3

IV. EVIL INCANTATIONS THE SPELL OF THE HOLY STONE AND THE SALAGRANA THE

SPELL OF THE SHELL AND THE TONE OF THE STONE — THE SPELL OF THE SNAIL

IL CANTO DEL GALLO DIVINATION WITH ASHES . . . . ■ 3 2 "

V. THE AMETHYST THE SPELL OF THE BLACK HEN THE SPELL OF THE BELL THE

SPELL OF THE BOILING CLOTHES RING SORCERY AMULETS, OMENS, AND SMALL

SORCERIES LEAD AND ANTIMONY ......... 349

INDEX 377

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

turan, or venus. (From Gerhard, who gives it as one of the Damonen der Aphrodite Probably an error. — Charles G. Leland)

turms, or mercury. (Initial T) tinia, jupiter. (Initial I)

APLU (APOLLO), TINIA, AND t£rAM6 (jUPITER AND MERCURY) TERAMO (TURUS; MERCURY)

nortia. (Initial T)

nortia. (Full-page, restored) .

APLU (APOLLO) AND ARTEMISIA

pan, pano. (From Gori)

lasa. (Headpiece)

mars, maso. (Initial O)

mars, winged. (Gerhard)

mars. (Full-page, after a bronze)

evil spirit. (Etruscan.) (Tailpiece)

diana and virbius. (Headpiece)

feronia. (Initial T) .

silvanus and nymph

house goblin, or etruscan brownie. (Tailpiece)

headpiece. (From rude Etruscan vase) .

fufluns (bacchus). (Initial T)

FUFLUNS, BACCHUS, APOLLO, AND SEMELE

etruscan ornament. (From Dennis). (Tailpiece)

corredoio. (Initial I) ....

thesan (tesana), lalae, linthun, memrun (memnon

cupids. (Headpiece) .....

lasa. (Initial B) . .

lasa, or guardian spirit

lasa or fairy, and faunus

tinia and lasa ....

losna. (From a Mirror) . . .

Frontispiece

PAGE

I

18 20 24 34 35

39 46

49 49

5° 52

59 64

65 65 66

76 80 80 81

85 88 92

Vlll

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

TAGO, TAGES ......

etruscan rural deities, (From Gerhard) faun. (From a Patera) ....

SETHLANS (VULCAN) AND THE TROJAN HORSE

roman mask (in British Museum) and cupids

carradora. (Initial C) .

begoe. bygoe. (Gori) .

alpan. (Corssen) .

etruscan vase. (Tailpiece)

headpiece. (C. G. L.)

munthucha. (Corssen) .

BELLA Rl A ....

lemures. (Headpiece)

tloria. (Initial T)

headpiece. (C. G. L.) .

il spirito del scaldino. (Initial D) (C

JtED-CAP ON A ROMAN LAMP HEADPIECE ....

cupra. (Initial O)

dusio. (Vignette.) (C. G. L.)

HEADPIECE. (C. G. L.) .

INITIAL W . . . .

ATTITUDE FOR DREAMING .

faun, or faflon (bacchus). (Tailpiece)

HEADPIECE .....

WOODPECKER AND MONEY. (Initial I)

losna. (From Bronze Votive Offerings)

headpiece. (From Vase, Museum of Florence)

initial T. (C. G. L.) .

headpiece and initial T. (C. G. L.)

dancing girl and boy. (Tailpiece)

initial I. (C. G. L.)

I. etruscan bronze bell, from chiusi, worn

writer.) 2. old roman magic bell lettered cylinder .....

ROMAN SLING-STONE .....

boy and lantern. (Vignette)

bronze etruscan amulet against the evil eye. (In possession of the Author)

(Tailpiece)

AS AN AMULET.

(In possession of the

PAGE

9 6 >97 99

IO7

"5 120

121 122

!34 136

136 159

348 349

357 362

373 375 376 ditions and observances little changed from an incredibly early time. It has been a question of late years whether the Bolognese are of Etrurian origin, and it seems to have been generally decided that they are not. With this I have nothing whatever to do. They were probably there before the Etruscans. But the latter at one time held all Italy, and it is very likely that they left in remote districts those traces of their culture to which this book refers. The name Romagna is applied to their district because it once formed part of the Papal or Roman dominion, and it is not to be confounded with La -Romagna proper. Roughly speaking, the region to which I refer may be described as lying between Forli and Ravenna. Among these people, stregeria, or witchcraft — or, as I have heard it called, "la vecchia religione" (or "the old religion") — exists to a degree which would even astonish many Italians. This stregeria, or old religion, is something more than a sorcery, and something less than a faith. It consists in remains of a mythology of spirits, the principal of whom preserve the names and attributes of the old Etruscan gods, such as Tinia, or Jupiter, Faflon, or Bacchus, and Teramo (in Etruscan Turms), or Mercury. With these there still exist, in a few memories, the most ancient Roman rural deities, such as Silvanus, Palus, Pan, and the Fauns. To all of these invocations or prayers in rude metrical form are still addressed, or are at least preserved, and there are many stories current regarding them. All of these names, with their attributes, descriptions of spirits or gods, invocations and legends, will be found in this work.

Closely allied to the belief in these old deities, is a vast mass of curious tradition, such as that there is a spirit of every element or thing created, as for instance of every plant and mineral, and a guardian or leading spirit of all animals ; or, as in the case of silkworms, two — one good and one evil. Also that sorcerers and witches are sometimes born again in their descendants ; that all kinds of goblins, brownies, red-caps and three-inch mannikins, haunt forests, rocks, ruined towers, firesides and kitchens, or cellars, where they alternately madden or delight the maids — in short, all of that quaint company of familiar spirits which are boldly claimed as being of Northern birth by German archaeologists, but which investigation indicates to have been thoroughly at home in Italy while Rome was as yet young, or, it may be, unbuilt. Whether this " lore " be Teutonic or Italian, or due to a common Aryan or Asian origin, or whether, as the new school teaches, it "growed" of itself, like Topsy, spontaneously and sporadically everywhere, I will not pretend to determine ; suffice to say that I shall be satisfied should my collection prove to be of any value to those who take it on themselves to settle the higher question.

Connected in turn with these beliefs in folletti, or minor spirits, and their attendant observances and traditions, are vast numbers of magical cures with appropriate incantations, spells, and ceremonies, to attract love, to remove all evil influences or bring certain things to pass ; to win in gaming, to evoke spirits, to insure good crops or a traveller's happy return, and to effect divination or deviltry in many curious ways — all being ancient, as shown by allusions in classical writers to whom these spells were known. And I believe that in some cases what I have gathered and given will possibly be found to supply much that is missing in earlier authors — sit verbo venia.

Many peasants in the Romagna Toscana are familiar with scores of these spells, but the skilled repetition and execution of them is in the hands of certain cryptic witches, and a few obscure wizards who belong to mystic families, in which the occult art is preserved from generation to generation, under jealous fear of priests, cultured people, and all powers that be, just as gypsies and tramps deeply distrust everything that is not "on the road," or all " honest folk," so that it is no exaggeration to declare that " travellers " have no confidence or faith in the truth of any man, until they have caught him telling a few lies. As it indeed befell me myself once in Bath, Where it was declared in a large gypsy encampment that I must be either Romany or of Romany blood, because I was the biggest liar they 'had ever met — the lie in this case having been an arrogant and boastful, yet true, assertion on my part, that though penniless at the moment to stand treat, I had, at home, twenty-four gold sovereigns, eighteen shillings in silver, and twopence in

bronze. " And I don't believe," added the gypsy, " that he had a d d sixpence

to his name. But he's all right." So these travellers on the darkened road of sorcery soon recognised in the holder of the Black Stone of the Voodoo, the pupil of the Red Indian medaolin, and the gypsy rye (and one who had, moreover, his pocket always full of fetishes in little red bags) — a man who was worthy of confidence — none the less so since he was not ungenerous of pounds of coffee, small bottles of rum, cigars, and other minor requisites which greatly promote conviviality and mutual understanding in wisdom. Among these priestesses of the hidden spell an elder dame has generally in hand some younger girl whom she instructs, firstly in the art of bewitching or injuring enemies, and secondly in the more important processes of annulling or unbinding the spells of others, or causing mutual love and conferring luck. And here I may observe that many of the items given in this book are so jealously guarded as secrets, that, as I was assured, unless one was in the confidence of those who possess such lore, he might seek it in vain. Also that a great portion has become so nearly extinct that it is now in articulo mortis, velin extremis, while other details are however still generally known.

An interesting and very curious portion of my book consists of a number of occult remedies, still preserved from remote antiquity among the mountain peasantry. Marcellus Burdigalensis, court physician to the Emperor Honorius made a collection, in the fourth century, of one hundred magical cures for disorders, such as were current in his time among the rural classes. He gathered them, as he informs us in a work entitled De Medicamentis Empiricis, " ad agrestibus et plebeis" ("from rustics and common people"). The collection has been edited by Jacob Grimm in a work entitled Uber Marcellus Burdigalensis, Berlin, 1849. These " charms " were very ancient even in the time of Marcellus, and, like most early Roman magic, were probably of Tuscan or Etrurian origin. Of these one hundred sorceries I have found about one-half still in current use, or at least known. As given by Marcellus they are often imperfect, many incantations being wanting. Some of these I have been able to supply, and I think that no critical reader, who will compare all that I have collected, will doubt that these Italian formulas contain at least the spirit of antique originals.

In addition to this I have included a number of curious tales, anecdotes, and instances, many of which are identical with, or allied to, much which is narrated by Ovid, Virgil, Pliny, Cato, Varro, and others — the result of it all being that a careful comparison of the whole can hardly fail to convince us that the peasantry of the Romagna Toscana, who have lived with little change since prehistoric times, have preserved, through Etruscan, Latin, and Christian rule, a primaeval Shamanism or a rude animism — that is, worship of spirits — and a very simple system of sorcery which can hardly fail to deeply interest every student of ethnology.

The result of my researches has been the collection of such a number of magic formulas, tales, and poems as would have exceeded reasonable limits, both as to pages and my readers' patience, had I published them all. What I have given will, I believe, be of very great interest to all students of classical lore of every kind, and extremely curious as illustrating the survival to the present day of "the Gods in Exile " in a far more literal manner, and on a much more extensive scale than Heine ever dreamed of. And I think that it will be found to illustrate many minor questions. Thus, for example, Miiller in his great work on the Etruscans could hardly have doubted that the Lases were the same as the Lares, had he known that the spirits of ancestors are still called in the Romagna, Lasii, Lasi, or Ilasii.

I must here express my great obligations and gratitude to my friend, Professor — now Senator— D. Comparetti.of Florence, who not only placed his admirable library at my disposal, but also aided me materially by "advice, cautions, and criticism." Also to his son-in-law, Professor Milani, the Director of the Archaeological and Etruscan Museum, and who, as an Etruscan antiquary is, I believe, second to none. I would here direct attention to his great forthcoming work, Le Diviniteela religione degliEtrusciQ' On the Deities and religion of the Etruscans"), which is a complete account of all which is known on the subject.

As regards truthfulness or authenticity, I must observe that the persons from whom these items were obtained were in every instance far too illiterate to comprehend my real object in collecting. They were ignorant of everything classical to a degree which is supposed to be quite unusual in Italy. I have read many times lists of the names of Roman deities without having one recognised, till all at once I would be called on to stop — generally at an Etruscan name — there would be a minute's reflection, and then the result given. It was the same with regard to accounts of superstitions, tales, or other lore — they were very often not recognised at all, or else they would be recalled with very material alterations. Had there been deceit in the case, there would have been of course a prompt " yes " to everything. But in most cases my informants gave me no answer at the time, but went to consult with other witches, or delayed to write to friends in La Romagna. Thus it often happened that I was from weeks to years in collecting certain items. The real pioneer in folk-lore like this, has always a most ungrateful task. He has to overcome difficulties of which few readers have any conception, and must struggle with the imperfect language, memories, and intelligences of ignorant old people who have half-forgotten traditions, or of more ignorant younger ones who have only half learned them. Now I have been, as regards all this, as exact as circumstances permitted, and should any urge that nihil est, quod cura et diligentia perfici haud possit, I can only reply that in this work I exhausted mine. And it is unfortunately true that in collecting folk-lore, as in translation, the feeblest critic can pick out no end of errors as he will, or show how he could have bettered it, in reviewing the very best books on the subject — which is one great cause in this our day why many of the best books are never written. For truly there is not much money to be made thereby, and if discredit be added thereunto, one can only say as the Scotch " meenister " did to his wife : " If ye have nae fortune, and nae grace, God knows I have got but a sair bairgain in ye."

It should be observed that all these superstitions, observances, legends, names, and attributes of spirits are at present far from being generally known. Much of the lore was originally confined to the strege, or witches — who are few and far between — as constituting secrets of their unlawful profession. Again, of late, the younger generation have ceased to take any interest in such matters, and as regards the names of certain spirits, it is with difficulty that a few old people, or even one here and there, can be found who remember them. Mindful of this, I took great pain? to verify by every means in my power the authenticity of what I have given, especially the names and attributes of spirits or gods. My most intelligent collector did her best to aid by referring to more than one vecckia, or old woman. An intelligent young contadino was specially employed at this work. He went on market days when the peasantry came down in numbers from the mountains, and asked the old women and men from different places, if they knew this or that spirit. He was eminently successful in verifying nearly all the names which I have here given. But he declared that he found it very difficult as regarded some of them, firstly, because only a very few old people knew the names which I was specially desirous of confirming, such as those of Tinia, Faflon, and Teramo, and that, secondly, these people were very averse to communicating what they knew, because such subjects are scongiurati, or prohibited by the priests. Adhering closely to the letters of his instructions, he however not only obtained the verifications, but induced a number of old peasants to write certificates, or fogliettini, as to what they had affirmed. These, written on strips of writing-paper of different colours, have a curious effect, looking something like testimonials of character of the ancient deities, as if the latter were seeking situations or charity. The following are specimens of these documents : —

"The Lasii are spirits of our ancestors, and are known at Santa Sofia.

"AUGUSTO FlERRARI.

"March, 1891."

" Fafflond (Faflon) or Fardel is the spirit of wine. He is known at Politeo (i.e., Portico).

" Ottavio Magrini."

" Tigna, the great spirit of lightning, has been generally known here in Dovadola from ancient times.

"V. Del' Vivo."

' ' Teramo is the spirit of merchants, thieves and messengers. He is known at San Benedetto, where the

deeds of this spirit have been related for many years.

"Tito Forconi, "March, 1891."

Enrico Rossi testifies of Mania della Nolle — the nightmare — that, " She was remembered once by many, but now it is a long time since any one at Galeata has spoken of her." I have more of these certificates ; suffice it to say that the youth, aided by his father and friends, succeeded in abundantly verifying all the names, save three or four. I should say, however, that these agents were exceptionally well qualified for the task, there being a very wise woman — in fact two — in the family. In some few cases they varied the orthography of the names. Thus " Peppino " declares in a letter that the correct name of Faflon is Faflo, and that the Lasii are Ilasie. What I would say is that I took all the pains in my power to verify the truth as to the actual existence of the names and attributes of these spirits, as well as of the other subjects of folk-lore given in this work.

There is another difficulty or contradiction to be noted. Many superstitions and observances are recorded as if they were still in familiar current use, or well known, which are in reality almost forgotten ; while others again are tolerably familiar to the multitude. I have often spoken of things as living which are rapidly becoming obsolete because my informants did so, after the fashion of old people — ut est a nobis pauloante commemoratum. I have been told that these stories and rites are perishing very rapidly, that twenty years ago an incredibly vast and curious collection of them could have been made, and that ten years hence it will probably be impossible to find the names of the old deities, or more than a mere fragment of what I have preserved, and that a great deal has perished or vanished from among the people even since I first began to collect it. For all of this I crave due allowance. I have also to request it for what may strike some readers as a defect. A great deal of this folk-lore came from persons who had learned it long ago, and who, consciously or unconsciously, had often only a dim recollection of a song or incantation, and so, voluntarily or involuntarily, repeated it, perhaps imperfectly, just as it would have been done among the contadini, who are by no means accurate in such matters, and yet are endowed with a great gift for improvising. That the motive or tradition existed in every case, and that its sense is preserved, I am sure. I simply urge that I have collected and published as well as I could, doing my best to select from a terribly mixed and confused mass of material, and that I can do no more. Further sifting must be done by those better qualified than I am.

What will seem strange to many readers is that so many of the incantations and other portions of narrative which I have given in measure or rhyme, are in the original quite devoid of both, and seem to be mere prose. I call special attention to this, because it has been to me a special difficulty. What I have heard sung to airs, so that it sounded melodiously, I have rendered in something like poetic form. What is called cantare alia contadinesca (" singing country fashion ") means to sing prose in a peculiar kind of chant. To illustrate this I may mention that there is one very popular little song : —

' ' Ma guerda la Rusena A fazeda a la finestra,''

which has not either in Romagnolo nor in Italian a trace of rhyme or rhythm, and which, as it was given to me in writing, seemed much more prosaic than are the majority of the incantations, or poems, in this work.

I am indebted to Senator Comparetti, of Florence, for pointing out to me the fact that this would strike many readers as a fault, and I have therefore devoted to it a special explanation. But I also owe to his extensive knowledge the remark that it is not less true that in many countries, as for instance the Slavonian, we see popular incantations now passing rapidly from poetry into mere prose. For this is the first stage of decay, and it is natural enough that those who have acquired folk-lore in this uncertain, half-changed, shifting form should give it again imperfectly. When the next generation comes it will be altogether lost, and then perhaps antiquaries would be thankful for such books, even if they were as full of defects as this of mine. Of which it may be observed that those who insist that all which is collected and published shall be absolutely and unquestionably faultless as regards every detail, while they certainly secure for themselves the gold all smelted and certified for them to manufacture or coin, exclude from commerce all ore or alloyed metal from which more skilful metallurgists may extract even greater values. I do not by saying this offer an apology for carelessness, or worse, but a hint that by exacting too much we may lose a great deal, as did the ancient Greeks who threw away as refuse from the mines of Laurium a vast amount of precious metal which modern science has turned to great profit.

But I have what I think is a good reason for giving translations of so many incantations and songs in measure and rhyme. There is a remark by Heine to the effect that many people think that when they have caught a butterfly, put a pin through it, and preserved it with some chemical, that they really have a perfect specimen ; and it is in this spirit that many study folk-lore. But that is not a butterfly at all. For to such a " flying flower," as the Chinese call it, there belongs the exquisite fluttering in sunshine, the living grace of its moving wings, and lines of flight — curves within curves, as in a living arabesque of motion — " from shade to sunlight among summer flowers." One of these contadina songs, as sung with melody and expression, is a living butterfly, but when written down — with a pen through it — it has lost its life. And as rhyme and measure to a degree restore this, I have thought that by giving these songs such form I have come somewhat nearer to the spirit of the originals. I could also have given in every instance the Romagnolo-Bolognese, but this my limits positively forbid. Many, perhaps most, of my readers will understand Italian, but very few Romagnolo or Bolognese. As regards the very bad quality of the Italian, every reader will understand that I have given it with very little correction.

I will not, however, be understood as going to the very extreme limits of humility and apology as regards these poems. A great many are in themselves strikingly beautiful, original, and imbued with a classic and often delicately appropriate spirit — as in those to Pah and Faflon — and the women from whom they were derived could absolutely have no more invented them than they could have invented the flying-machine of the future or settled " the great national Italian problem " of flaying peasants without hurting them, or eating a cake and having it. This is simply true, and as not a line or letter of them came ever so indirectly from me, the question is simply, how could women, so illiterate as to hardly understand what they repeated, have invented it all — much more, how could they have woven into them, as is done in most cases, the most classical and appropriate allusions, characteristics, and colour ? Of all of which I can truly say, that if my informants really manufactured these incantations, the interest and value of my book is thereby augmented a hundredfold, as being the most remarkable piice de manufacture ever presented to the public.

What will strike many readers as strange is that there should have existed to the present day — though it is now rapidly disappearing — in a Roman Catholic country, an ancient heathen religion of sorcery, from earliest Tuscan times. That such a survival under such a stratum is not without parallel, I have shown by an incident, which is thus described in my Gypsy Sorcery : —

" It has been discovered of late years in India, that during thousands of years of Brahminic, Buddhistic and Mahometan rule, there always existed among the people a rude Shamanism, or worship of spirits and stones, eked out with coarse sorcery, which formed a distinct religion by itself, and which came to light as soon as British government removed religious oppression. This religion consisted of placing small rocks after the fashion of Stonehenge and other ' Druidic ' monuments, and in other rites of the most primitive kind. And it is very evident that the oldest religions everywhere are founded on such a faith."

But I was much more astonished to find that in Tuscany, the most enlightened portion of Italy, under all Roman rule an old pagan faith, or something like it, has existed to a most extraordinary degree. For it is really not a mere chance survival of superstitions here and there, as in England or France, but a complete system, as this work will abundantly prove. A few years ago Count ANGELO de Gubernatis informed Mr. Gladstone, in conversation, that there was actually among the Tuscan peasantry ten times as much heathenism as Catholicism. I repeated this remark to a woman whom I employed to collect folk-lore, and her reply was : " Certainly, there is ten times more faith in la vecchia religione " (" the old religion "). " For the peasants have recourse to the priests and the saints on great occasions, but they use magic all the time for everything."

At another time when I expressed my astonishment that a certain girl who had grown up in the country was utterly ignorant of the name of a single spirit, io INTR 0D UCTION.

and could recall nothing relating to witchcraft, she became scornful, and then excited, exclaiming : —

" And how should such a stupid fool, who is afraid of the priests and saints, know anything ? I call myself a Catholic — oh, yes — and I wear a medal to prove it " — here she, in excitement, pulled from her bosom a saint's medal — " but I believe in none of it all. You know what I believe."

" Si ; la vecchia religione" (" the old faith "), I answered, by which faith I meant that strange, diluted old Etrusco-Roman sorcery which is set forth in this book. Magic was her real religion.

Much of this magic is mixed up with Catholic rites and saints, but these in their turn were very often of heathen origin. Some saints such as Antony, Simeon, and Elisha, appear as absolutely sorcerers or goblins, and are addressed with ancient heathen ceremonies in cellars with magical incantations. The belief vafolletti, a generic term for goblins, and other familiar spirits, has not sunk as yet to the "fairy-tale" level of beings only mentioned for entertainment — as in Grimm's Tales — they enter into popular belief as a part of the religion, and are invoked in good faith. There is actually in Tuscany a culture or worship of fetishes which are not Catholic, i.e., of strange stones and many curious relics.