Aërial navigation

II 3 1924 022 830 545

Cornell University Library

The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text.

BY

J. G. W. FIJNJE VAN SALVERDA

LATE ADMINISTRATOR OF PUBLIC WORKS OF THE

NETHERLANDS, AND ADVISORY COUNCILLOR FOR

HYDROTECHNIC AND RAILWAY AFFAIRS

TRANSLATED FROM THE DUTCH BY

GEORGE E. WARING, Jr.

WITH NOTES CONCERNING SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ART

NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

Copyright, 1894, By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.

Electrotyped and Printed at the appleton press, u. s. a.

NOTE BY THE TEANSLATOE.

The following pages contain a comprehensive summary, mainly in popular form, of the development of aerial navigation from the balloon of Montgolfier (1783), which was filled with heated air, down to the early stages of the investigations and discussions of Langley, Maxim, Holland, and others (1892).

The writer is a most distinguished Dutch engineer, of advanced age, and now retired from the public service, in which he held the highest position.

The conclusions reached by Mr. Fijnje, after his careful review of the whole field, are entirely in the direction of the early successful solution of the problem of mechanical flight, and his conclusions are well sustained by his evidence.

After the publication of the original essay, Mr. Fijnje learned of the investigations of Prof. S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian Institution, and of the published essays of Mr. Hiram S. Maxim and Mr. John P. Holland, which constituted an important addition to the material available at the time of his first writing. He thereupon issued a second pamphlet, describing and discussing the iv AfiRIAL NAVIGATION.

new suggestions as to the application of the aeroplane principle. Copious extracts from this publication are given herein. To bring information as to the progress of the art down to the date of publication, there is presented, in addition to Mr. Pijnje's writings, a resume, with extracts, of Langley's Experiments in Aerodynamics, Holland's essay on Mechanical Flight, and Langley's later and very important paper on The Internal Work of the Wind.

Newport, K. I., January, 1894.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE:

I. — Introduction 1

II. — The Military Importance op Aerial Navigation 10

Introduction

The important question of aerial navigation has taken on a more and more scientific character, and has enlisted the increasing interest of serious minds. The opinion that a brilliant future is before it is apparent from its very general acceptance among competent experts in France at this time. It is, indeed, slowly, and only within a few years, that it has made real progress. This is to be ascribed in part to recent meteorological observations, and in part to the numerous experiments and photographic observations, with the investigations thereby made possible as to the movements of birds in flying. Such investigations were necessary before the requirements of mechanical flight and the laws controlling it could be properly understood.

The investigation of this question assumed a practical and more especially a military importance during the siege of Paris and in the war of Tonquin. This

2 ATRIAL XAVIGATION.

military side of the problem seems, in France at least, fully to keep pace with the more purely scientific interest, which has to do with meteorological problems generally.

These various trials have led to broader investigations, which must surely aid in the final solution of the difficult problem. ther enlightened countries of Europe and America have also joined in the inquiry. The more or less uncertain problem as to the use of air balloons is still far from being solved. The difference is indeed great when we compare with the present balloon the simple one which Joseph Montgolfier sent up on the 5th of June, 1783, at Annonay, and by which he and his brother Stephen made themselves famous.* This balloon was made of varnished paper and was filled with heated air. Nevertheless, the reports of

* The credit of the invention of the air balloon by the Montgolfier brothers was not disputed, notwithstanding the fact that already in ancient times mechanical flight had been spoken of. It appears,' however, that attention had up to that time been given chiefly to the flight of birds. Reference may be made in this connection to Dajdalus and Icarus in Greek mythology ; to the natural philosopher Dante in the latter part of the fifteenth century, of whom it was reported that he flew several times across Lake Trasymene in Italy, till in descending too rapidly he broke one of his legs ; and finally to the smith of Sable, in France, who with a, pair of -wings was able to descend obliquely, though he could not lift himself through the air. There are, aside from the foregoing, only traditions as to the air ship of Laurent in 1709, and that of the Jesuit priest Lara ; and finally that of the Portuguese, Guzman, of whom it was maintained that he invented an air balloon in 1736.

INTRODUCTION. 3

this apparently unimportant experiment were soon spread throughout Europe, and attracted the universal attention of scientific men. Thereupon Prof. Charles, in conjunction with the brothers Eobert, mechanicians, filled the first balloon with hydrogen gas. This was only four metres in diameter. It was sent up from the Champs de Mars in Paris. Bising with astonishing rapidity, it soon disappeared from sight and burst from the great expansion of the gas in the lighter upper air. It came down about twelve miles from Paris, in the village of Genesse, where it was destroyed with hay-forks and flails by the superstitious peasants.

Five months after the ascension of the air balloon at Annonay the first ascent with passengers was undertaken by Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlande. They went up at the Chateau " la Muette," not far from Paris, with a balloon fifteen metres in diameter, and in twenty-five minutes they came down at about five miles' distance from the starting jplace. This first trial was soon followed by several others,*

* In January, 1885, Dr. R. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, held a private centennial celebration of an achievement of his grandfather, Dr. John Jeffries, a graduate of Harvard University, who made, in 1785, the first passage by balloon from England to France, with the aeronaut Blanchard, paying him over £700 for the cost of the trip. They quitted the cliff at Dover at quarter past one. At three they passed over the French coast between Cape Blanenez and Calais. At quarter past three they descended in the forest of Guines. The spot is still indicated by a monument erected with such improvements as the safety-valve, the rope net for hanging the car, the use of ballast, the anchor, etc. The idea was then also conceived of determining the elevation by barometrical observations. Prof. Charles and Eobert had already reached a height of six hundred metres in a balloon starting from the garden of the Tuileries. When the last named got out, the balloon rose suddenly to a height of three thousand metres, but came down twenty-five minutes later. Gay- Lussac and Biot reached an elevation of four thousand metres, and the first named, alone, an elevation of even seven thousand metres.

The ascent and descent of balloons could, therefore, be more or less completely regulated ; there was thus far, however, no suggestion of controlling the direction. The question of the buoyancy of the balloon necessary for the ascent still commanded exclusive attention, with the immediate result of giving a wrong direction to observations and to scientific investigations. This led to constant disappointment, and, strictly speaking, no further progress in the scientific development of aerial navigation was made for nearly a century.

Due account could be taken of the scientific considerations only by the aid of —

by the Municipal Council of the city and Compte of Guines. He was much feted, and a very interesting account of the adventure, taken from his journal, is to be found in the Magazine of American History, January, 1885, page 66. — G. B. W., Jr.

INTRODUCTION. 5

1. Observations of meteorological phenomena and conditions which might influence aerial navigation, some of which became possible only after the erection of the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

2. Observations on the flight of birds, whereby the requirements of artificial flight might be determined in accordance with the laws of Nature. These observations became possible only after the development of instantaneous photography.

We could, before that, classify the mechanical work of flight into several kinds of movements, but we could not analyze these nor fully comprehend them. There were, therefore, no sufficient experimental investigations as to the resistance of the air as affecting artificial flight, and for the lack of these requisite means, and of a scientific basis for investigation, the development of the art was thus far impossible. As to the flight of birds, and as to the means of making observations concerning this, we worked in obscure uncertainty. This uncertainty has been removed only in these later years by the self-registering apparatus and the chronometric photography of Prof. E. J. Marey, of Paris. These marked a new era in the study, and as we watch their results we advance more and more towards the practical end of a knowledge of mechanical flight. The problem has already reached a good measure of development in France, or has at least attracted more and more general attention ; and though great disappointments have thus far been encountered, we can, on the other hand,

6 AfiEIAL NAVIGATION.

show the important result that balloons have made us, in a certain measure, independent of gravitation ; that we can, with their aid, be for a time borne up in the air, and that within certain limits we can rise and descend. The possibility of moving at all times and in any desired direction is attained only imperfectly, and we have for nearly a century worked in vain towards this end, because of the erroneous supposition that the apparatus must be as light as possible, and that only buoyant balloons can fulfil this condition. Only recently it was proved that the object could never be perfectly attained with balloons, and that in this respect we had ' simply been following a wrong lead. The means for steering the balloon, which was at first supposed to be an unimportant part of the problem that would soon be solved, seems to require the most investigation and the most exact knowledge. But few had suspected this, and doubt with regard to it was ascribed to great and unaccountable over-anxiety. Yet this doubt was well founded.

Among the bold pioneers who have in modern times prepared the way for a scientific study of the problem, Nadar, of Paris, must be accorded the first rank. Without possessing the varied scientific knowledge requisite for such study — which, in fact, at that time was impossible — he yet arrived, by dint of his own observations and investigations, to the conclusion that the prevailing idea of the necessity of using light balloons was founded in error — a conclusion which was pithily expressed in the

INTRODUCTION. 7

designation of his principle, Le plus lourd que Vair. In order to secure acceptance for that principle, it must be followed out and analyzed, which required not only great outlay but the concurrence of men learned in different branches. That point of view had not before been taken, but Nadar became convinced of its necessity by mere force of his exceptional common sense, his immovable equanimity, his inspired enthusiasm, and above all his firm conviction, and he was soon recognized as the most fit person to awaken a general interest in the universal importance of the object in view. He did not spare himself in the always more or less hazardous strife with the powers of the air, and he hesitated even less to make pecuniary sacrifices to his principle, Le plus lourd que Vair, though he brought financial trouble on himself thereby. He was always sustained by his placid, gentle, but courageous wife.

Nadar set forth his principle in a pamphlet* entitled Droit au Vol {The Right to Fly). At his own cost he constructed a gigantic balloon, with a capacity of six thousand cubic metres and a height of forty-five metres, trusting therewith to secure the capital, of uncertain amount, which he judged necessary for further exploration. He was fully convinced that his principle could attain general acceptance only after thorough investigation, f It was therefore a great disappointment

* Published by Hetzel, Paris, four editions, f It should be noted here: (1) That already, in 1837, a Swedish engineer, Tollin, had tried to introduce the principle of Le to him that the financial undertaking of " The Giant " was not a complete success.*

These efforts had only the result of giving his principle an important bearing on later scientific investigations. Beyond this we can attach no great scientific value to these ascents, which, indeed, they were not intended to have. It was always known that the larger the balloon the greater the number of persons that it would support ; that account must be taken of the time available and of the state of the weather ; and that, still more than in ocean navigation, the regulating and starting of the balloon demands the services of competent and tried experts. In this regard, the choice of times, and especially of the men in control, was not always

plus lourd que Fair and (2) Simultaneously with Nadar, Messrs. la Landelle and De Ponton d'Amecourt, in their studies, had advanced the same principle, which resulted in the association of the three men.

* Nadar made only six ascensions with his balloon, "The Giant," in the years 1864-'67— viz., three times at Paris, once at Brussels, once at Lyons, and once at Amsterdam. Tersteeg joined in the last-named ascent, and wrote a communication concerning it. The balloon was then turned over to a company. The first two ascensions at Paris were made in unfavourable weather ; the first time the safety-valve did not close completely, and it became necessary to descend when they had only reached Meaux, five kilometres from Paris ; the second time Nadar was accompanied by his wife and by a descendant of Montgolfier. In coming down they were in danger of their lives, for the balloon, driven by a fierce storm, bounded along the ground with heavy shocks. This account is derived from an accurate report which was soon published in somewhat romantic form, entitled Memoires du Giant, with a preface by Babinet, 1 vol., 12mo, Dentu, 1864, two editions.

INTRODUCTION. 9

fortunate. The ascent was therefore sometimes a hazardous undertaking.

The principle leplus lourd que Vair has appeared to me, strictly speaking, not to be entirely sound, for the reason that the weight of the whole apparatus, so far as the conditions for ascent are concerned, need not be heavier than the displaced air ; it contains, however, an unmistakable element of truth, and has helped to do away with a still existing erroneous idea concerning light balloons. It has also led to the conviction that ability to give any desired direction to the flying machine is absolutely necessary. The direction of the common balloon was entirely dependent on the wind ; while the former opinion that the higher strata of the atmosphere moved in an opposite direction, and that advantage could be taken of this fact in the movement of the balloon was not confirmed. The possibility of controlling the direction of air machines has indeed now been established, but thus far only within certain limits ; it is dependent on the nature of the apparatus, on the rapidity of its movement, and on the weight of the machinery employed. I shall endeavour, in the following considerations, to establish this opinion by a general review of the present status of the art, without pretending to a thorough knowledge of its fundamental principles nor of all the details of the subject.

This would be too extensive a work, and would be beyond my ability. It must, I think, be relegated to a future time, when a more intimate knowledge of the art of aerial navigation shall have been reached.

CHAPTEE II.

THE MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF AERIAL NAVIGATION.

Before going into the general subject, however, it seems proper to give some attention to the advantages in warfare offered by mechanical flight, which, as has already been observed, has kept pace with the scientific side of the question, and which has led to wider investigation.

We have in view, in this connection, not only the siege of Paris, but also the war in Tonquin and the recent important military manoeuvres in France.*

During the siege of Paris the Government was constantly striving to put itself into communication with the departments, and Nadar distinguished himself very greatly in establishing the balloon postal service, rendering his aid in the most disinterested manner; but he had to give way before the extravagant demands as to their personal safety of those employed in the service.

The state of the weather and the barometrical conditions were -closely followed day by day, so that the

* See the Revue du Genie.

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF AERIAL NAVIGATION. H

balloons which were sent up came down with much precision. This never failed. As it is not at all my purpose to enter into the political difficulties of the time, I will only say that even Gambetta himself did not hesitate to escape from Paris in a balloon.

In Tonquin the natives offered a stubborn resistance to the French troops under Admiral Courbet. In the low level ground of the delta, that seemed especially designed for rice cultivation, the enemy could deploy en tirailleur, and shield himself behind the smallest clump of bamboo plants, so that he was sufficiently protected, while the French were, on the contrary, exposed to a murderous fire. On the first landing of troops at Kelung they were also confronted in the unknown land by important defensive works of whose existence they had no suspicion. In consequence of the defeat experienced, the French Government found itself obliged to send out strong reinforcements under three generals. At the suggestion of Admiral Courbet, these were accompanied by a detail of aeronauts, consisting of Captain Aron, Lieutenant Jullien, five subordinate officers, eight corporals, and twenty-three sappers. These were all familiar with ballooning, while the arsenal at Chalais provided the needed material.*

* In this connection it is to be observed that — (a) The regulation army balloon of six hundred cubic metres could not be transported over the roads then existing in Tonquin, and smaller ones were sent out, which were made in Chalais in less than a fortnight. (b) The hydrogen gas needed for filling the balloon had to be pre-

According to the published accounts these balloons answered their purpose excellently well. They accompanied the troops in all the military operations in Tonquin, and were also used in action. Not to go too much into details, and confining ourselves to our main purpose, we shall not describe the expeditions and battles, but confine our remarks to some individual instances. One of the balloons, after being used uninterruptedly for thirteen days, was still in sufficiently good condition to allow one observer to make the ascent.

The outfit had sometimes to be conveyed over simple footpaths, and always over obstructed roads. By reason of the existence of unusually large bamboo plantations, which it was necessary to avoid, they had constantly to go through the flooded rice fields. The day's march thus became very difficult, and sometimes, during strong winds, the men had to tug at the ropes with all their might. No delay was, however, experienced from this source.

The observations were sometimes made during more or less wind. The balloon then rose to an average height of one hundred and fifty metres, and during

pared on the ground, (c) It was feared that the varnished balloons would be injured during the transit through the Red Sea. They were therefore loaded not in the hold but on the bridge, near the pilot-house, after being well oiled and covered on the seams with oiled paper. These balloons were not injured in transportation at all, in comparison with those that were left to be varnished on the spot.

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF AERIAL NAVIGATION. 13

battles to two hundred and fifty metres. From that height, by raising the voice, it was possible to inform the commanding officer as to the point where the projectiles fell, and as to the strength of the force to be attacked. The commanders acted in accordance with these indications, and thus maintained the courage of the army in a remarkable manner.

Communications for the chief of staff were written on paper, which was weighted with stones that they might easily be found; these were forwarded immediately by mounted couriers.

It was also through the exact reconnoitring of the aerial observers that the Chinese were prevented from retiring from Bac-Ninh ; and that place was taken without assault and without firing a shot.

It has therefore occurred to me that a close study of the war of Tonquin in 1884, with an eye to the possible uses of aerial navigation, must be considered as full of importance to the art of war.

Concerning the use of aerial navigation in the recent great military manoeuvres in France, we take the following account from the report of M. Debureaux, an officer of engineers, which appeared in the Revue, du Genie.

According to this officer, the military value of aerial navigation was never so decisively shown as in the manoeuvres in the Department of the Aube. Anchored balloons were in telephonic communication with the ground, and the great importance of this novelty was fully appreciated. Instead of being obliged to draw the balloon down in order to receive the information that had been gathered, the officers in the car were in constant communication with the commanding general, and could keep him always informed of the least movement of the enemy, even those made at a considerable distance.

The advantages derived were not indeed limited to this. With the new means for making the gas, and with the improved method for filling the balloon, they were able to make the ascent within an hour, and could transport the balloon, whether filled or not, with the required aerostatic material without the least difficulty. This material was moved from Versailles to Brienne, more than one hundred and twenty miles distant, in ten days' march. They sometimes made more than twenty-five miles in a single day. It was found in practice, however, that the regulation number of men was not sufficient, and that the party was exposed to much too great fatigue, so that their number was more than doubled.

The first ascent was made in rain and wind, and under generally difficult and uncomfortable conditions, at the battle of Aulnay.

The aerostatic park had to be conveyed to Garenne, the place fixed for the ascent, over hilly and muddy roads. In spite of these difficulties, however, the ascent was made at the appointed hour, and great service was rendered. Warning was immediately given to the com-

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OP AERIAL NAVIGATION. 15

mander of the Eighth Army Corps that he was moving his lines against a mere feint, and the position of the reserve and the real line of attack were pointed out to him. Thereupon four general officers got into the balloon to profit by the most important advantages that the position offered.

General Galiffet, at Colombey, remained two hours and a half in the car, and from there, at an elevation of from two hundred and fifty to four hundred metres, gave his orders by telephone. The army then covered a field eight miles long by from two to six miles wide. The commander of the "Western army was, nevertheless, enabled closely to follow the movements made by the enemy in preparation for the battle ; he could clearly distinguish all objects and thus decide how to place his artillery. He could study the country for a distance of twelve miles as on a map, and from the rising dust could follow the movement of troops concealed by woods. After leaving the balloon, this general remained in constant communication with the observers.

At Vendeuvre, the cavalry fight, more than nine miles distant, was signalled to General Davoust. During the night engagement on the Voire the balloon showed itself to be most serviceable. On the other hand, it was thought at Margeris that it was not best to risk the outfit during the stormy weather. In actual war this consideration would not be allowed to have weight.

The transportation of the filled balloon was most successful, even in the midst of a fight and in spite of the crowding of the troops at the passing of Bar-sur- Aube ; in the march through the forest of Bassicin and the Great Eastern Woods, there was, in like manner, no disturbance of the movement of the troops. Every obstacle was overcome in from two to five minutes, while the balloon could always be brought at a trot with great precision and at any moment to its place in the column.

The last trial was at a review of the troops at Vitry. The balloon was sent up after the aerostatic park had been moved into its place, and hovered at a height of six hundred metres over the magnificent display afforded by an army of one hundred thousand men on the march.

In concluding his report, M. Debureaux observes that, had Napoleon at Waterloo and Bazaine at Saint Privat had a balloon service at their disposal, a different result might have been expected from both of these battles ; the approach of Bliicher in the first place, and in the latter the small force of the Germans, would have been known.

M. Debureaux thinks also that at a distance of three miles the balloon would have been beyond the reach of artillery, and that it would have commanded the ground for a distance of more than six miles. Even at night the country is sufficiently illuminated to be compared with a map. He commends also the ability to transport the balloons over routes which are removed from

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF AERIAL NAVIGATION. 17

the immediate scene of action, and is further of the opinion that, by reason of the facility with which they may be transported, they may be placed beyond the reach of fire, their information being communicated by telephone. The balloon may soon be of great service in sieges, for it can be flown quite over the invested place and descend beyond the reach of danger, reporting to the besieging army what is going on in the town.

From the experience obtained by the ascent at Vitry, such an expedition may be made with a loss of only three hundred and fifty pounds of ballast.

Finally, it is to be expected that with a portable outfit a buoyant balloon can be brought into use within half an hour of the arrival of the aerostatic park, and the foregoing account shows what services can be rendered. In the Netherlands, so far as I know, aerial navigation has engaged attention only from a military standpoint. At Utrecht experiments have been made with a balloon constructed after an old model which cost ten thousand florins, each trial costing seventy florins.

The conclusions reached were, that it was difficult in a covered or wooded country to distinguish the movement of troops and to learn their purpose. As will be shown later, the experience at Atjeh was of a similar character.

The possibility of applying aerial navigation to military ends was thus also realized in our own country, but its technical development had not been sufficiently advanced for its place in the make-up of the army and in measures of defence to be definitely indicated. It was also thought that, in view of its great cost, its immediate development would not be justified while so many things, which in the opinion of experts were more necessary as means for our defence, must be provided, and which, for lack of means, still remain wanting.

The Military Department, which appreciated the importance of the subject in the Netherlands, was familiar with the work at Chalais, and with the establishment of the balloon service in the French, German, and Austrian armies. There was even prepared a plan for an organization of the service, according to which the cost of the plant with eight balloons amounted to three hundred thousand florins, while it was estimated that for their proper service there would be required nine officers, sixteen non-commissioned officers, and four men ; and for the transportation of the park, ten sergeants, ten corporals, sixty-eight riders, and one hundred and sixty-eight horses ; and for the service of the arsenal, one engineer, one stoker, three labourers, one mechanic, one tailor, and one sail-maker.

The cost would thus not be unimportant ; it seems to justify the fear that such an addition to the military budget would not be acceptable to the States-General. It would seem judicious to leave these costly experiments to the great powers, and to let smaller states ultimately make use of their results. We should, how-

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OP AERIAL NAVIGATION. 19

ever, keep ourselves constantly informed as to the latest development of the art, whether at Ohalais and in the French army or elsewhere, in order at least to be prepared for a time of better financial conditions. We should not let our thrift get the better of our wisdom. We should keep to the idea of establishing a balloon service at least for the protection of the necessary force, against the time of need, and it is not advisable to postpone this until the emergency arises — not to await the threat of war.