The psychology of musical talent

Front matter

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

Author's Preface

This monograph is addressed to students of applied psychology. By content, it appeals directly to those who are interested in music ; by method and treatment, it may serve as a somewhat intensive presentation of a specific subject for the student of educational psychology, child-study, vocational and. industrial selection, or vocational and avocational guidance.

The SQientific study of t he artistic mind is a somewhat baffling un dertakin g. There are no substantial precedelltsTthe available scientific data are extremely meager; by nature the artist himself is but little interested in the process of his mental dissection; and, after all, the varieties of artistic minds are legion. But the time i s ripe for a vigoj - ous_gpplication of t.j^p tpnTmigup nf psynhnl pgical inveni ery to practical affairs, and the discovery and fostering of human talents i s indeed both practical and practicab le. The stress of war forced our army to adopt psychological methods for the selection and rating of the human energies of men for assignment to service and for promotion. "When the best results are demanded in any occupation, haphazard procedure must give way to procedure on the basis of ascertained facts. When Music shall come to her own she will come to the musically gifted : to that end musical talent must be revealed and encouraged.

The system of evaluation of musical talents to be reviewed in this book will find a large field of usefulness in the ele-

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AUTHOR'S PREFACE

mentary schools. A set of exercises is being worked out for the introduction of some of the most important tests in this series as a part of the regular instruction in certain grades of the elementary schools. This will secure a sort of "dragnet " survey of musical talents, as all the children in the community will be reached when they pass through these grades. It will stimulate an interest in the search for talent and efforts in the conservation of talent on the part of all concerned, particularly the teachers. Among the pupils it will cause a wholesome awakening to a recognition of their particular talents. For teachers of music it will stimulate the recognition of responsibihty for the talented children of the community. It will be a part of the coming system of i vocational and avocational advice, and should be a potent [instrument in the development of commimity interest in |music. The tests themselves constitute very profitable musical exercises.

If the great musicians can live before us in the wonderful reproduction of the modem phonograph, tone-producing instruments employed in the measurement of musical talent might equally well be made to perform for popular presentation through this medium. To test this assumption we made accurate measurements of the reliability of the reproduction in phonograph records and found that, for most purposes, such a record is as good as the original instnunents and that in some respects the record has an advantage over the original instrument in that it makes it possible to standardize the test material with accuracy.

The first series entitled "Measures of Musical Talent" is started with five double disk records, each illustrating a basic test as follows : the sense of pitch (Chapter II), the sense of intensity (Chapter III), the sense of time (Chapter

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AUTHOR'S PREFACE

IV), the sense of consonance (Chapter VII), and musical memory (Chapter XII). This series will be extended from time to time as progress is made. These records have been made by the Columbia Graphophone Company through whose agencies they may be obtained. They are inexpensive and permanent and may be played on any good phonograph.

"With these records a booklet of instruction is furnished free, g iving directi ons, norms, and interpretations, as they may be e mployed tor class expeiim entij in psychology^ for ' musical surveys in ihe-. p]pmr.T,+^r-y nnVmnl"; fn r thg f ^.T]fj,1ygig oilalent in the music studio, and for scientific entertainroent m i iome circl es.^ ~~ " =

A second series embraces the motor tests. For this there are available instruments and methods for the measurement of timed action, rhythmic action, motility, singing in pitch, and other tests as outlined in Chapters IX and X. The use of these is more limited because the test can be made only upon one individual at a time ; but their application is of broader significance inasmuch as they measure basic capacities for many occupations besides music.^

While there may seem to be much in the form of specific guidance in this volume, the effort has been made throughout simply to expose the facts in specific instances and indicate their possible bearings, leaving it at every stage to the reader to take larger situations into account and to feel the

'A monograph' on "A Survey of Musical Talent in Public Schools" will appear at an early date as a research bulletin from the Iowa Child- Welfare Eesearch Station (Iowa City, Iowa). Another monograph on the analysis of musical talents in the music studio and the music school will appear as Volume VIII of the University of Iowa Studies in Psychology (The Psychological Review Publishing Co., P*rinceton, N. J.).

' The principal instruments in these two chapters may be obtained from the C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago, 111.

VS.

AUTHOE'S PREFACE

responsibility for working out in his own experience the appUcations that the facts might warrant. This is particularly true of the public school survey in which the main object is to get the facts and then leave them as a standing challenge to parents and pupils.

This volume is primarily a collective and elementary presentation of the results of investigation by the author and his pupils and associates and must, therefore, go forth essentially as a communication from our laboratory, which is devoted largely to the study of the psychology of music. Limits of space preclude a more general and historical treatment.

The author is indebted to the Musical Quarterly, Science, The Music Supervisors' Journal, The Proceedings of the National Music Teachers' Association, The 18th Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, The Musician, and The Etude, for the privilege of using parts of material originally published in those journals. For generous equipment, research personnel, and a hearty encouragement of specialization within the field, the author acknowledges his profound obligations to the State University of Iowa. The author also acknowledges the favor of The Macmillan Company for use of the illustrations from "The Science of Musical Sounds" by Dayton Clarence Miller and from "Experimental Psychology" by Edward B. Titchener. Owing to the newness of the venture, advice has been sought and received from a host of friends. To all of these and to the laboratory students in the psychology of music who have shared the joy of comradeship in research,

— a lasting gratitude.

C. E. Seashore.

Iowa City, Iowa.

September, 1919.

X

CHAPTER I The Psychology of the Musical Mind PAOB

I. The Point of View 1

II. An Inventory 6

III. 'Records of Talents 15

IV. The Value of a Talent Inventory 27

Chapter II

II. The Physical Basis of Pitch 31'

III. TheThysiological Basis of Pitch 34

IV. The Lowest Audible Tone 35

V. The Highest Audible Tone 39

VI. The Measurement of Pitch Discrimination ... 42

VII. Individual Differences .50

VIII. The Physiological versus the C ognitive Limit . . . 51 "

^ IX. Relation to Age 52

V X. Relation to Sex 56

XI. Relation to Intelligence 5&^

XII. ■ The Effect of Training 69

XIII. Capacity Elemental 65

XIV. Basic Nature of the Test 65

XV. Norms for Vocational Guidance 66

XVI. Heredity 68

XVII. Tonal Range 71

XVIII. Pitch Difference in the Two Ears 74

XIX. niusions of Pitch 75

XX. The Sense of Pitch in Anima ls 77

si

CHAPTER III The Sense of Intensitt

PAGE

~~ I. The Physiological Basis 79

II. Tonal Gaps and Tonal Islands 83

III. Acuity of Hearing 86

IV. Acuity of Hearing throughout the Tonal Range . . 90 •^ V. Periodicity in Sound 94

VI. The Measurement of Intensity Discrimination ... 95

VII. Relation to Age 97

VIII. Relation to InteUigence 98

IX. Effect of Training 99

X. Musical Significance 102

CHAPTER IV The Sense op Time

II. Nature of the Sense of Tiipe 104

III. Measurement of the Sense of Time 108

IV. Relation to Age 110

V. Relation to Training 112

VI. Relation to InteUigence 113

VII. Relation of Sense of Time to Sense of Pitch . . .113

VIII. Musical Significance 113

CHAPTER V ^ The Sense op Rhtjhm

I. The Nature of Rhythm 115

II. What Rhythm Does 117

III. Measurement of the Sense of Rhythm .... 124

f ^ \ CHAPTER VI /

I. Definition of Terms ! 127

II. Purity 128

III. Overtones 129

IV. Measurement of the Sense of Timbre . . . .136

CHAPTER VII The Sense op Consonance

PAQE

I. Combination Tones 139

II. Spatial Fusions 143

III. Nature of Consonance 144 ■

IV. Measurement of the Sense of Consonance . . . 154 V. Relation to Age, Intelligence, and Training . . . 157

Chapter VIII

I. The Problem 160

II. The Sense of Direction 160

III. The Sense of Extensity 163

IV. The Sense of Volume 165

Chapter IX

II. A Chronograph and a Chronoscope 170

III. Motility 173

IV. Timed Action 175

V. Simple Reaction Time 177

VI. Action on Choice 179

VII. Serial Action 180

VIII. Precision in Movement 182

IX. Discrimination 184

X. Strength and Endurance 184

Chapter X

II. Pitch 187

III. Seeing Yourself Sing 189

IV. Intensity 200

V. Time 202

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VI. Rhythm 203

VII. Timbre 205

VIII. Consonance 207

IX. Volume 207

X. What Constitutes Voice? 208

XI. General Considerations 209

Chapter XI

II. Imaginal Types 213

III. General Tests of Mental Imagery J15

IV. A Simple Test of Auditory Imagery in Children . . 219 V. The Development of Auditory Imagery . . . .221

VI. The Role of Auditory Imagery in Music .... 223

VII. Actual Prevalence of Musical Imagery in Musicians . 22S

VIII. Motor Imagery 228

IX. Musical Imagination 2^

X. Significance of Imagination as a Musical Talent . . 234

Chapter XII

I. The Plastic Limit 236

II. Auditory Memory Span for Pitch 238

III. Retention 243

IV. The Learning Curve 243

V. Absolute Pitch 248

VI. The Significance of Memory in Music . . . . ., 251

CHAPTER XIII n. Musical Free Association . 254

III. Greneral Intelligence 256

IV. The Power of Reflection 258

V. Musical. Significance ....... 262

Chapter XIV Page

I. The Approaches to Feeling 264

II. Musical Taste 268

III. Emotional Expression in Music 269

IV. The Conveying of Musical Feeling 270

Chapter XV

I. A Self-Examination 272

II. Use of the Measure of Musical Talent in the Schools . 280 III. Organization of the Musical Schedule in the Grades on the

Basis of Abihty to Progress and Profit . . . 286

XV

The Great Force

"I am the soul of the joy of life — the companion of its sorrows.

"All moods are mine. I am hilarious. I am frivolous, I am gay, I am serious. I am sad. I spin out the silver thread of happiness, the golden thread of comfort and solace. On wings of melody I bear the dreamer off to strange places and strange lands. To the wanderer I sing of home. In the despondent I renew resolve. To the despairing I bring hope. In the child I engender pure tastes, refinement, and inspire noble thoughts and high ambitions.

" I am ever ready. I never tire. I am a well-spring of inspiration, relaxation, recreation. I am at home in the dwelling of the richest or the most lowly in the land — where religion reigns or under the roofs that know not God.

"In peace I had ever been at the service of man. In war was I to be found wanting? Was I to be thoughtlessly brushed aside in the tremendous rush to arms ? Many there were who would have stilled my voice till peace should come again. But I was put to the test. I was not found wanting. I proved my woTth. I found my niche, for I am full of cheer, of undying, unflickering resolve — of the spirit that knows not defeat.

" Day and night found me on duty with the saviors of civilization — in the camps, on the ships, in strange foreign villages, in dugouts, in trenches right up to hell's partition — everywhere where death and danger were commonplace, soothing tensed nerves straining at the leash, singing of victory amid the battle's roar, — restoring the balance of upset minds — chanting the dirge of deviltry.

" In war, as in peace, food, clothing, and shelter come first in sustaining morale and rendering comfort. I come next.

"I helped to win the war.

•'I am MUSIC.'-'

— Courtesy of Life.

XVI

Chapter I

I. The Point of View

Three branches of the psychology of music. Three aspects of the psychology of music are fairly distinct : the psychology of musical talent, the psychology of art principles involved in music, and the psychology of musical training. The present volume is restricted to the presentation of the first of these three aspects — the psychology of musical talent, an account of the musical mind.

Aim, to describe and explain. This subject is treated both from the theoretical and the practical point of view, the aim being to describe and explain the musical mind in such a way as to serve in the recognition, the analysis, the rating, and the guidance of musical talent.

What constitutes description and explanation in psychology. Description and explanation of this sort involve in general for each mental process analysis of the process into its structural elements, classification, identification of purpose, tracing genetic history and physiological conditions, and statement of laws of behavior. Thus, a psychological account of musical rhythm begins with an analysis of this experience into its component psychological elements.

These are then classified and the significance of each is discovered by tracing the purpose it serves in mental economy, its evolution in the race, its development in the individual, and its physical and physiological bases. Beyond such descriptive account the more exact knowledge may then be stated in terms of laws of behavior.

Value of the psychology of music. From an adequate study of types of mind of this sort, we should gain a systematic knowledge of the mental life involved, and the abihty to interpret this life for the enlargement of our horizon in culture and for the acqtiisition of power in efficiency. It should lead to an appreciation of mental life for itself, and should lay a foundation for the understanding of ourselves and our pupils as musicians, om- art, our methods of procedure in musical training, and the conservation and direction of artistic talent.

The experimental method. Our approach is that of experimental study. Where there is no experiment there can be no science. Psychology is scientific just to the extent that it is based upon principles of experiment and is faithful to them. In the study of a given mental process, the experimental method demands that the process shall be specifically identified and reasonably isolated for description ; that it shall be under control so that it can be kept constant, can be repeated, and can be varied in one aspect at a time ; and that the results of the observation shall be recordable and verifiable. In so new a science as psychology, and particularly in the almost unexplored field of the psychology of music, such principles can be compUed with only in part ; but adherence to them fosters a critical attitude and chastens the treatment of those phases which have not yet been brought under experimental control. We shall, therefore, not vaunt the slogan of science, but shall modestly try to maintain, in spirit, the scientific point of view.

The relation of applied to theoretical psychology. To be sound, appUed psychology must involve and rest upon theoretical psychology; but the theoretical remains incidental, serving merely as a groundwork to the apphed. In music the way of apphed psychology is still desperately obstructed by the underbrush of primitive views of mind and the barbed-wire entanglements of the warfare of uncritical theories and self-interests. We can at best pave or point the wise way only in part ; the most effective guidance comes from knowledge of the situation rather than from directions or rules of procedure. Therefore, the mere description of aspects of the musical mind will often be placed in the foreground, without effort to point the rnoral, particularly when the morals are countless.

Scientific vocational guidance. At the present stage a scientific vocational guidance in music must be admitted to be a vision rather than an avowed aim. Yet in no other field does vocational guidance give so great promise of becoming scientific as in music. Among the reasons are these : music requires specific talents ; these talents can be identified and rated by psychological methods; to a certain extent they are essential to happiness and success in the art"; musical education is expensive; misguided talent may entail a chain of grievous misfortunes ; and, other things being equal, musical advantages should be conferred in proportion to the degree of talent.

Avocational guidance in music. But the pursuit of music as a vocation is limited to a very small number of those who legitimately pursue music as an art. Avocational guidance in music, therefore, becomes more important than vocational guidance; for avocational guidance is the systematic direction of children and youth in the selection and organization of their avocational pursuits — those pursuits which we follow, not as occupations but as diversions and merely cultural quests. The goal of vocational guidance is efficiency in the profession — a sort of business. The goal of avocational guidance is self-realization in the enjoyment and expression of the beautiful. There is no contradiction between these two, and they have many things in common, but the pursuit of art for itself is the larger aim.

The conservation of artistic energies. From this point of view the appUed psychology of music leads to a conservation movement. Indeed, it is not out of place to speak of the saving of hfe by the discovery and encouragement of unknown genuine talent in such a way as to lead to achievement in the art. Surveys of pubhc schools show clearly that very little correlation exists between the possession of musical talent and the selection of children for musical education ; and records of the extent of children's musical education show no close relationship to the possession of talent. Thus, in recognizing the possibihties and worth of genuine talent and the futihty of trying to make a precious metal out of a base one, musical guidance may be looked upon as alleviating hirnian suffering, both of the prospective musician and of those associated with him. It should certainly enhance artistic fife, both in the individual and in the community.

A pattern for scientific guidance in other fields. In so far as psychology of musical talent is a scientific basis for vocational guidance in a specific field, it may serve as an exemphfication of principles which may be extended into other fields. The psychology of talent in the graphic and plastic arts and the psychology of talent in dramatic art suggest themselves. But even in the study of fitness for occupations in the trades and industries we shall find many analogies.

Based upon measurement. The applied psychology of music in the interest of guidance rests upon mental measurements. We now find it quite feasible to measmre certain musical talents quantitatively. Since this feature is comparatively new, it will be necessary to give considerable space to the description of methods and means of measurement, not only in order to show how it may be done, but primarily because that is the best way of isolating and describing a mental process. Not all talents lend themselves to measm-ement. Specific and simple talents, such as the sense of pitch or the sense of time, can be measured with precision. In general, the more complex and diffuse a talent is the less it lends itself to direct measurement. Musical reflection and musical emotion are examples of talents which are too diffuse to be measured as such, although we can weigh many of the factors which are determining components.

The experimental attitude. Measm-ement is a form of experiment. Therefore, as in experiment in general, the conception of measurement is helpful in the evaluation of many factors which we shall not undertake to measm-e. It furnishes a point of view which results in a penetrating insight, a power of analysis, a critical reserve, and accuracy. Where we cannot measure directly, we can often evaluate indirectly; for example, when an observer has several himdred records of his rating of voice registers he can gradually rank these in the order of excellence and in that way estabUsh a fair scale for the rating of particular voices.

Hierarchies of talents. Musical talent is not a single talent ; it is a hierarchy of talents, many of which are entirely independent of one another. Therefore, the description of a musical mind reduces itself to the picturing of the relative prominence or latency of each musical talent. The talents naturally group themselves so that we have, for example, the tonal group, the rhythmic group, the motor group, the intellectual group, and others ; and within each of these we may trace much detail.

Musical talent an inborn gift. Musical talent is a gift bestowed very unequally upon individuals. Not only is the gift of music itself inborn, but it is inborn in specific types. These types can be detected early in Ufe, before time for beginning serious musical education. This fact presents an opportunity and places a great responsibility for the systematic inventory of the presence or absence of musical talent.

The musical mind a normal mind. The musical mind is first of all a normal mind. Indeed, the normal mind is musical to the extent that it is normal. It will be out of the question to attempt a general account of the mind as a whole. We must take it for granted that the musical mind is an aspect of a normal personality with endowments for a general mental Ufe, and we must also take the general psychology of such mental life for granted. We shall not, therefore, describe the musician as a whole but only with respect to those aspects of talent which are peculiarly necessary for music.

II. An Inventory

Twofold basis of classification. In making an inventory of the musical mind, we are guided by two coordinate bases of classification : first, the attributes of sound ; and, second, the generally recognized powers of the human mind.

The foxir attributes of sounds. Sounds have four attributes : pitch, intensity, duration, and extensity. In terms of these four attributes, we can account for every possible shade of difference in sounds — from the most exquisite nuances of the human voice, through all the range of instrumental tones and the sounds of animate and inanimate nature down to the inchoate noises.

Principles of the classification. Our classification of items will, therefore, be a list of those traits of the human mind which are necessary for the apprehension and expression of the recognized attributes of sound. These are the hearing of tones, the production of tones, the representation of tones in memory and imagination, musical thought, and musical feeling.

Factors of the musical mind.

I. Musical sensitivity —

A. Simple forms of impression

1. Sense of pitch

2. Sense of intensity

3. Sense of time

4. Sense of extensity

B. Complex forms of appreciation

1. Sense of rhythm

2. Sense of timbre

3. Sense of consonance

4. Sense of volmne

II. Musical action

Natural capacity for skill in accurate and musically expressive production of tones (vocal, instrumental, or both) in :

1. Control of pitch

2. Control of intensity

3. Control of time

4. Control of rhythm

5. Control of timbre

6. Control of volume

III. Musical memory and imagination

1. Auditory imagery

2. Motor imagery

3. Creative imagination

4. Memory span

5. Learning power

IV. Musical intellect

1. Musical free association

2. Musical power of reflection

3. General intelligence

v. Musical feeling

1. Musical taste

2. Emotional reaction to music

3. Emotional self-expression in music

The sense of pitch. The sense of pitch is involved, not only in the hearing of melody and harmony, but also in the hearing of tone character in many complex forms. Pitch is the raw material of music. The function of the higher capacities, such as memory, imagination, and feeling, or playing and singing, is limited by the degree of sensitiveness to pitch. This becomes significant when we find, for example, that, according to actual measurement, one person may be two hundred times as sensitive to pitch as another of equal age, social standing, and general intelUgence.

The sense of intensity. Then, we have the sense of intensity, which represents the capacity for appreciation of differences in strength of sound. This is basic for the hearing of musical expression and the appreciation of touch, and for modulation in intensity or loudness and volume.

The sense of time. The thu-d elemental capacity is the sense of time. This is basic for all perception of rhythm and for rhjrthmic action. A limitation in this capacity for hearing time sets a corresponding limitation upon feeling, thought, and action.

The sense of extensity. The sense of extensity furnishes the immediate experience of the magnitude or space relations of sound, particularly volume. Since it is a counterpart of pitch, which it parallels, it holds but a secondary place in the psychology of musical talent.

Simple, immediate, and elementary forms of all auditory impressions. Such are the four fundamental capacities of hearing. They vary quite independently — pitch without time, time without pitch, intensity without pitch, extensity without intensity. Since these are the four channels through which all sounds must enter, all that is within the mind is characterized by their receptivity or non-receptivity.

Complex, derived, and richer forms of all auditory impressions. There is another screen inside this outer screen of the primary capacities, representing the ability to receive auditory impressions ; in this we find four principal phases, namely, the sense of rhythm, the sense of timbre, the sense of consonance, and the sense of volume.

The sense of rhythm. The sense of rhythm rests upon the sense of time, the sense of intensity, and mental imagery, but it requires in addition a number of affective and motor qualifications ; thus a person may have a keen sense of time and intensity and still not have a pronounced sense of rhythm.

The sense of timbre. The sense of timbre is essentially the ability to hear the tone quahty, tone character, or tone color of sounds. Timbre is essentially a pitch complex. It rests primarily upon the sense of pitch and in a secondary way upon the sense of intensity ; but it requires something additional not embodied in either of - these separately ; a person may have a keen sense of pitch and a keen sense of intensity and yet not be keen in the sense of timbre.

The sense of consonance. The sense of consonance is the simplest form of musical hearing which underHes the combination of tones, either simultaneous or successive, as in melody or harmony. This rests primarily upon a sense of pitch, but involves higher elements so that a person may have a keen sense of pitch and yet not be effective in the sense of consonance.

The sense of volume. Volimie in music may be analyzed into its component elements : extensity, intensity, timbre, and the number of sounds. The appreciation of volmne may, therefore, take several forms and the volmne may be of different kinds.

Capacities for action parallel to capacities for hearing. Tm-ning from musical hearing to musical action, we demand the capacities for producing pitch, time, and intensity, and their derivatives, rhythm, timbre, and consonance, by voice and by various kinds of instrimients.

Pitch, intensity, time. The abiUty to sing in pitch, the possession of a large and suitable pitch range of the voice, the abihty to play in pitch on instruments whose pitch is wholly or partly controlled by the player, present quite different claims upon the human organism. But each can be isolated for examination and rating. The control of intensity, which we ordinarily call touch, whether it be vocal or instrumental, reduces itself largely to a fine general muscular control. The ability to keep time, both vocally and instrumentally, also rests upon a pecuhar gift of precision in action. These three capacities are comparatively simple and specific.

Control of rhythm. When we turn to rhythmic action, the situation is different. Here we deal with the responsiveness of the whole organism, with certain unconscious and instinctive reverberations, and a rich play of emotional expression in action. Likewise, the control of timbre as tone quahty demands a very delicately adjusted system of motor control. In the voice, for example, this calls for favorable vibrating, resonating, and energizing organs, and a dehcate control of these by a musical mind.

Control of timbre. On the other hand, the tone quality of the stringed and other instruments, in which the tone quaUty depends largely upon the action of the player, is conditioned upon general motor control as the servant of a refined and analytic hearing. Likewise, the instrumental rendering of tones in pitch, sequence, or concordance, as in melody and harmony, demands, on the motor side, a good general motor control as the organ of musical intellect and feeling.

Musical imagery. But the hearing of tones and the producing of tones does not make music. One of the most essential groups of, capacities is that which we may call representation, including memory and imagination. The ability to re-Uve music realistically in memory and imagination depends upon the power of auditory imagery and motor imagery, and is very much enriched by the possession of imagery through each and all of the senses. A rich imagery will enable one to recall or invent and review mentally with detailed accuracy in hearing, and with the accompanying motor and emotional effects.