Great Argentina; comparative studies between Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Perú, Uruguay, Bolivia and Paraguay

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Great Argentina; comparative studies betw

CHAPTER I General Considerations

The present time, when the idea is being formed of a poHtical union, which might be converted into an aUiance, between Brazil, Chile and Argentina has appeared to me opportune for making a comparative study of the degree of civilization and of the riches, power and economic laws of these countries, without excluding other neighbours, such as Uruguay, Peru, BoHvia and Paraguay, which, at least for us Argentines, cannot be less congenial, and to which we are united by sufferings and glories experienced in common.

The economic interests of different countries, reciprocally respected, are the only interests which consolidate the sentiments of fraternity, because only thus do they rest upon real and immovable bases and are not Hmited to words and manifestations which often are acts of mere courtesy and are soon forgotten with absence.

I will endeavour, then, to find among these nations elements of union more secure and positive, more frank and loyal, more elevated and human. In order that the concord may be perfect, fruitful and lasting, it is indispensable to have recourse to the system of commercial reciprocity, of mutual assistance, so that all may prosper and be enriched, each one sending to the others what it can produce most easily and acquiring from them what can be obtained at a lower price and of better quality. The richer countries are the most interested in the increase of the well-being of those which are not rich, so that the latter may become larger consumers of the articles which they themselves cannot manufacture and may succeed, by the cheapening of the necessaries of life, in producing their own at a less cost.

Some time has elapsed since I tried to find the means for enabling these countries to form a customs union, something like the Zollverein^ which facilitated commerce and the collection of the revenue in the different German States, ending in consolidating their political union, and which has carried them to the wealth and power with which they dominate the whole world.

From the beginning of the past century the different German States felt the necessity of strengthening the bonds which in other times united them, by centralizing their external fiscal organization and suppressing the duties which they recovered from each other.

It would occupy too much space to enter into all the details. In 1836, the Zollverein had been already formed by 21 States with 25 millions of inhabitants. There was a mixed administration and the net proceeds which were obtained were distributed among the States in proportion to their respective populations. It underwent various alterations, being dissolved in part, until it was re-established in 1865, when it comprised 35 millions of inhabitants. After the constitution of the Empire, it formed part of the national administration, with the exclusion of Hamburg and Bremen, which, however, gave up their Custom-houses in 1888 and received 12 millions of marks by way of compensation.

Sommerlad sums up in the following manner the organization and tariff policy of the Zollverein :

(( The Customs Association was a league of peoples based upon the law of nations, without a superior direction in common, formed only for the fixed term of 12 years.

(( The organ of the league was the general customs convention constituted by the agents of the united countries, who assembled periodically and whose resolutions were not based upon the principle of the majority but required unanimous approbation.

(( The last renewal in the old form of the law of nations was effected on the 1 6th of May 1865 and the treaty of the 8th of July 1867 created a new ((transitory organization)).

(( The Council of the customs league, with the resolutions of the majority and the veto of the country which presided, replaced the general customs conventions with the free veto of every State independently.

(( The customs padiament, formed in part by the Diet of the North German Confederation and in part by the corresponding number of Delegates sent by the South German countries, constituted in itself a parliamentary representation for legislation on the services of the Custom-houses and on the indirect contributions of the community, and held its sessions during the years 1868- 1870. The articles 33-40 of the Constitution of the German Empire assigned at last the legislation on Custom-house matters exclusively to the Empire.

(( The tariff policy of the Customs Association was based on the Prussian customs and excise tariffs of May 26th, 18 18, but in the period of the years 1 842- 1 846 it suffered alterations several times in a protectionist sense and the (( protection duties )) were often increased in favour of the production and industry of the different States of which the Association was formed.

To the abolition of the transit duties in 1 86 1 there were added in 1865 the free-trade reforms, in consequence of the treaties of commerce entered into with France, Austria, Belgium, Italy and England, the Custom-house prescriptions of those countries being accepted for the international tariffs.

((The stages of the years 1868 and 1870 ha\'ing been passed, this reform was terminated in 1873 and in the tariffs published on July 7th of that year the duties on exports were abolished and those on imported unmanufactured iron were reduced. Altogether, it may be said that the German Customs Association has always perseveringly followed (with the sole exception of the years I842-I846) the principle approved by King Frederick William III, in his Cabinet order ■issued at Karlsbad on August 1st, 18 1 7, i.e. the principle of importation duty-free for all time to come.

(( The Customs Association had had, since its definite institution in the year 1834, purely beneficial consequences: the promotion of industry, especially in the South of Germany, and the progressive material development of the whole of Germany)).

In the first ten years of its existence the Census showed an increase of the population by nearly five millions of people ; the receipts of the association rose in the years 1850 to 1870 from 23 millions to 40 millions of thalers (a thaler was equal to three marks of the present money) and in 1834 gave a surplus of Y., thaler per head of the population, which in 1843 had almost doubled itself.

The historian Treitschke says that at the end of the first ten years of the history of the Customs Association, the country had at last again attained the well-being which it enjoyed before the Thirty Years War.

Another merit of the association is the influence which it had on the confused monetary system and on the system of weights and measures. The monetary convention of the year 1838 established in a definitive manner the value of the thaler in relation to that of the florin, and the convention of 185 7 fixed the pound of 500 grammes as the unit of weight for the Custom-houses.

Finally, it should be mentioned that, by the initiative of the general customs conference, convoked by Prussia on August 3 1st. 1847, there assembled in Leipzig the celebrated Conference which dealt with bills of exchange and which on December 9th. in the same year succeeded in elaborating a plan for the creation of general laws relating to such documents.

Lindner, in his history of the German Nation, says: ((In fact, the Customs Association maintained vitality even in the small States. Moreo\'er, according- to Bismarck's declaration on May 2nd., 1879, it was the Customs Association which prevented in Prussia, in his time, the completion of the system of indirect taxes, until the creation of the North German Confederation made it possible for Prussia to control these taxes efficaciously and with advantage. Meanwhile, the community of material interests led to the approximation of the inhabitants of the different countries, placing them in contact with each other, and thus cultixated in them the sentiment and conviction that e\'ery one of the States of Germany and every citizen in it belonged in the first place, and above all else, to the great German Fatherland, so laying the foundations upon which Prussia, after infinite struggles and difficulties, could reach the desired point of her German political aspirations)).

It may be easily understood how, imbued with these principles and examples, I have conceived ideals so beneficial and grand as those which this part of South America would attain if its interests could be united for producing results similar to those which the German States obtained, without ienorinpf the fact that the circumstances would not be the same and that the fiscal and economic conventions between independent nations of different orig-in would have to be less strict and to be different in detail and even fundamentally compared with those which it has been possible to establish among confederated countries and which eventually formed a single nation by the identity of race, language and aspirations.

The changes of system which put an end to inveterate practices and which wound prejudices and ill-understood sentiments of national pride cannot be brusquely realised ; it is necessary to design their principal features long beforehand and to wait for reason and reflection to carry them, later, into practice for the general good.

A new era of peace and mutual respect, which puts an end to alarms and distrust, is opening for these countries. The unforgettable manifestations of sympathy and the flattering attention which the Argentine President, General Roca, received in Rio, and which were so amply returned to the Brazilian President, Dr. Campos Salles, in Buenos Aires, after the termination by the arbitration of the United States of the longstanding boundary questions between these two countries, were seconded by those which the Argentine Delegates, the bearers of the pacts signed with Chile, received, from the people of Santiago and which the Argentine people have recently manifested so spontaneously and affectionately to the Chilian Delegation. This proves that no country desires war and that all respond to the initiative of this mode of making fraternity practical and to the sincere intentions of General Roca, whose equanimity in the management of international affairs has oriven such advantasfeous results for the tranquillity of the South American continent. Also that of General Mitre, whose authoritative counsels have exercised so powerful an influence in inducing the Argentines, at the least, to desist from defending their rights by arms. It must be suggestive for the civilized world, which watches with so much interest our development and progress that the two most prominent military men in South America have been, precisely, the most determined champions of peace. Perhaps, because they have been present at and directed the most sanguinary and strategic battles, with the greatest numbers of combatants, that are recorded in South American history, and have witnessed the sterile sacrifice and brutal extermination of human life, their reflection and experience may have given oreater force to their word, so as to convince the misguided that arbitration is to-day the only decorous means for free peoples to adopt for settling their differences. It is, then, proved and confirmed that all Americans feel the necessity of vvorkinof and that the Governments are desirous of economizing in order to recover the immense sums spent on the powerful elements of war which have accumulated in their arsenals. We hope that soon the questions pending between Peru and Bolivia and Chile will also be solved, as well as the inconceivable dispute between Bolivia and Brazil respecting Acre, and then this continent will be seen free, for many years, from the danger of international wars.

In spite, however, of the era of peace which is being initiated and even of the general aspirations to a political alliance of South America, it is impossible to entertain illusions respecting the possibility, at present, of an economic union such as that which I have proposed to myself to study. The differences of race and customs, the distance, the false economic principles which predominate in most of them, the complicated internal and financial political situation of some, make difficult, if not impossible, a unification of objects and of laws tending to harmonize absolutely their respective economic interests.

But, if the idea be premature, the examination of the economic interests which affect every one of these countries, the study of their laws, of their riches and civilization, the comparison of their respective productive and economic capacities, may serve for preparing the bases of a future union, and, what is more important, of an actual approximation tending to the unification of money and to the facilitation of communications, abbreviating the duration of voyages to Europe and the United States, and with it a political entente offering greater guarantees of peace and even of mutual defence against aggressions, which, although I deem them improbable, ought not to be disregarded.

Moreover, the data which I have collected offer, in themselves alone, a sufficient interest and may serve to rectify some erroneous appreciations and to demonstrate the comparative riches, prosperity and culture of these countries, and I believe that some of them, especially those which relate to the Argentine Republic, will be read with surprise by many persons, as well at home as abroad.

I do not pretend that all these data are perfectly exact, nor is this possible; in some cases there will be a confusion of one year with another and deductions from them must be made approximately, but they will not differ much from the truth, and, besides, for the object of this study mathematical precision is not necessary.

The statistics of these countries- are, moreover, deficient; in some they are completely wanting; many data are contradictory, which is perfectly explicable, for these people are not nor were their ancestors ever remarkable for close application and much less for exactitude.

The Argentine statistics approximate most nearly to the truth, and even the director of that department. Dr. Latzina, makes note of all the imperfections, negligencies and errors committed by the offices which supply him with data, and that, for instance, the figures obtained from the Accountant General's Office do not agree with those of the Custom-house, and he gives the preference to the former. It is not strange, then, that, while the Argentine statistics of 1 90 1 state 30 millions as the value of the exports to Great Britain, the statistics of the latter country put the value of the imports at 62 7^ millions. The Chihan statistics in the contrary way, for the exports in 1900 to Great Britain appear as 46 ^s millions, while the latter does not acknowledsfe more than 24 ^/, millions. I presume that this proceeds from a destination being given to the vessels chartered for the ((Channel for orders)) different from that at which they eventually discharge their cargoes.

Farther on, important differences will be seen between the statistics of Europe and North America and those of South America.

For these reasons I must trust more to the former.

For greater clearness, I ought to state that I ha\e reduced all the values to gold dollars at the rate of 8 5 per £ sterling.

Panamerican railway proyect.

Chapter II

Extent and Population. — The different races. — Immigration.

The countries which are the subject of this analysis occupy 15,722,000 square kilometres. They contain different races, the white, black, yellow and mixed being represented, making in all about 3 1 millions of inhabitants. Their territories extend from Lat. 4° North to 58° South and are surrounded by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, having 5,000 miles of coast on the former and 3,000 on the latter.

The climates comprise, from the Equator to Cape Horn, all that are known on the Earth, the tropical appertaining mostly to Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay, and the cold and temperate to Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.

Of the extent and population mentioned, there belong: 8,33 7,000 kilometres and 17,000,000 mhabitants to Brazil ; 2,800,000 ks. and 4,800,000 inh. to Argentina; 1,770,000 ks. and 3,000,000 inh. to Peru; 750,000 ks. and 3,000,000 inh. to Chile; 1,650,000 ks. and 1,850,000 inh. to Bolivia; 184,000 ks. and 1,000,000 inh. to Uruguay; 253,000 ks. and 700,000 inh. to Paraguay.

As to Peru, the statistics of the population vary between 3 and 4 \/., millions, the former number being the most acceptable.

Indians exist in number about 4,000,000 of whom 1,500,000 belong to Peru, 1,300,000 to Brazil, 870,000 to BoHvia, 130,000 to Paraguay, 50,000 to Argentina and 100,000 to 150,000 to Chile.

There are 2,500,000 negroes distributed as follows : 2,400,000 in Brazil, 90,000 in Peru and the rest disseminated in the other countries.

Argentina has not more than 8,500 negroes and mulattoes.

Of mixed-breds there are 5,000,000 in Brazil, 960,000 in Peru, 300,000 in Bolivia, and smaller numbers in the other countries, respecting which the statistical data are not complete.

Europeans exist in the seven countries in number about 3,726,000, of whom 2,273,000 belong to the so-called Latin race and only 443,000 to the

Germanic races, and they are distributed as follows: 2,380,000 Latin and 320,000 Germanic in Brazil, 900,000 and 100,000 in Argentina, 52,000 and, 2,400 in Uruguay, 17,000 and 15,000 in Chile, 17,000 and 3,000 in Peru, 5,100 and 2,500 in Paraguay. In Bolivia there must be few, since the white natives of foreign parentage are estimated at 80,000. Of the European population in Brazil, 1,300,000 are ItaHans and 800,000 Portuguese. In Argentina there are 500,000 Italians and 200,000 Spaniards. The proportion of European population to the total population is 21 % in Argentina, 15 °/o in Brazil, 5.44 7o in Uruguay, 1.08 in Paraguay, 1.03 in Chile and 0.66 in Peru.

Immigrants entered in I897-I898 in number, on the average, of 100,000 a year into the Argentine Republic and 85,000 into Brazil. The latter gives free passages to immigrants ; Argentina does not grant them. Only 2,000 entered Chile, though the government gives subsidies for them {$ 190,000 gold per annum). In the same years, an annual average of 9,400 entered Uruguay. This immigration is equivalent to 2.60 "/^ of the population in Argentina, 0.50 "/o in Brazil, 0.96 % in Uruguay and 0.06 in Chile.

^2

These figures varied in 1 90 1, when Argentina had 126,000 and Uruguay 9,600, and in 1900 Brazil had 30,000. A large portion of those who enter Argentina return eventually to their ow^n country ; of the other countries there are no statistical data.

Arms for work are scarce just now in Argentina, as well in the country, for the harvests, as ordinary labourers in the Capital. I do not believe that it is convenient to any of the countries to produce artificial immigration ; it is preferable that immigration should be slow, as the increase of labourers is required by the development of the natural industrial cultivations; in any other manner, the error is committed which Argentina had to lament by collecting the refuse of all the European cities. Those who emigrate from Argentina consist of enriched persons who return to settle in the country of their birth ; others intend to come back again ; some are artisans who have not found the work which they sought. There may, however, be deeper and more general causes for the emiorration.

It will be seen from the preceding data that it- is only for Brazil, which has, among negroes, mulattoes, Indians and mixed-breds, 8,700,000 of souls.

or 50 °/o of its population, that the question of the races can be a source of anxiety, more than it is in the United States, where the proportion of negroes, mulattoes and Indians reaches only 1 2 %. Peru is, also, in a disadvantageous condition because it has 33 °/o of that population. The countries which are free from this inconvenience are Argentina, Chile and Uruguay.

INCREASE OF POPULATION FROM 1886 tO 1 90 1

The population has increased or decreased in 1 5 years in the following proportions :

Paraguay 133 o/o

Peru + 15 »

It must be mentioned that Chile in the last censuses allowed an increase of 1 5 °/o for probable errors. If this had not been done in former calculations its increase would be only 9 °/o- As for the increase of Paraguay, the observations made by Dr. Latzina must be remembered in comparing it with the other countries, viz. ; that when there is only one inhabitant on an island and he gets married in another and takes home his wife and mother-in-law, the population is increased by 200 °/o. Paraguay, so depopulated after the war which terminated in 1870, has been able to grow in population by 133 °/o, without this fact giving it greater importance in reference to immigration. I may also remark that we can not have great confidence in Paraguayan statistics, owing to the careless manner in which they are worked out.

CHAPTER III Public Education and Administration of Justice

The diflfusion of education is still backward in some parts of the South American Continent. ' The school attendance is usually slack and to the numerous religious feast-days are added several patriotic festivals. In most of the countries education is obligatory, but none of the governments can strictly fulfil this prescription, for want of resources. Recourse might have been had to the Australian system of travelling schools, which permits that country, with a smaller number of inhabitants per kilometre than any of the South American States, to educate twice as many pupils, for instance, as Argentina, which already educates 3 °'o more than Uruguay, three times as many as Chile and five times the number of Brazil. All these countries are, besides, much nearer Europe and were constituted 200 years before Australia.

The following are, more or less, the proportions of attendance at the schools in relation to the respective populations :

Of those who can neither read nor write there are in:

Data are wanting respecting the numbers of these in the other countries.

The inhabitants of Argentina who can neither read nor write are distributed among the different provinces and territories in the following proportions.

Santiago 82 °/o

Jujuy 76 »

National Territories 71 »

San Juan 60 »

Mendoza 55 »

or 50 7o of its population, that the question of the races can be a source of anxiety, more than it is in the United States, where the proportion of negroes, mulattoes and Indians reaches only 1 2 %. Peru is, also, in a disadvantageous condition because it has 33 % of that population. The countries which are free from this inconvenience are Argentina, Chile and Uruguay.

INCREASE OF POPULATION FROM 1886 tO 1 90 1

The population has increased or decreased in I 5 years in the following proportions :

Paraguay 133 oj^

Peru + 15 »

It must be mentioned that Chile in the last censuses allowed an increase of 1 5 °/o for probable errors. If this had not been done in former calculations its increase would be only 9 °/o- As for the increase of Paraguay, the observations made by Dr. Latzina must be remembered in comparing it with the other countries, viz. ; that when there is only one inhabitant on an island and he gets married in another and takes home his wife and mother-in-law, the population is increased by 200 °/o. Paraguay, so depopulated after the war which terminated in 1870, has been able to grow in population by 133 %, without this fact giving it greater importance in reference to immigration. I may also remark that we can not have great confidence in Paraguayan statistics, owing to the careless manner in which they are worked out.

CHAPTER III

Public Education and Administration of Justice.

The diffusion of education is still backward in some parts of the South American Continent. ' The school attendance is usually slack and to the numerous religious feast-days are added several patriotic festivals. In most of the countries education is obligatory, but none of the governments can strictly fulfil this prescription, for want of resources. Recourse might hav^e been had to the Australian system of travelling schools, which permits that country, with a smaller number of inhabitants per kilometre than any of the South American States, to educate twice as many pupils, for instance, as Argentina, which already educates 3 °/o more than Uruguay, three times as many as Chile and five times the number of Brazil. All these countries are, besides, much nearer Europe and were constituted 200 years before Australia.

The following are, more or less, the proportions of attendance at the schools in relation to the respective populations :

Of those who can neither read nor write there are in:

Data are wanting respecting the numbers of these in the other countries.

The inhabitants of Argfentina who can neither read nor write are distributed among- the different provinces and territories in the following proportions.

Santiago 82 o/o

Jujuy 76 »

National Territories 71 »

San Juan 60 »

Mendoza 55 »

Santa Ve 44 . 6 o/"

Cordoba 42 »

Federal Capital 25 »

The whole Republic 50.5 »

There is a little of heredity in all this, for the persons unable to read or write in the countries from which the large majority of those who inhabit this part of the continent derive their origin are sufficiently numerous, the proportions being in

Portugal 79 °jo

On the other hand, the English have 8 °/o, the North Americans, in the white population, 4.6 °/^ and the Germans ( omitting the Poles ) only 0.20 %. The coloured in the States 44.5 %•

The Latin races always present very notable differences in their efforts at education, when they are compared with Germanic races. I exclude France, which has not more than 1 4 °/o of inhabitants who cannot read or write, and which, in strictness, is not Latin.

The same thing occurs in the Catholic countries, as may be seen by studying the following data:

In Germany it has been proved that, of 10,000 individuals unable to read or write of different religions, there were:

Catholics 3697

Jews 1920

Protestants 1797

Dissenters 1398

Among the conscripts, the following- reductions in every 10,000 have been noted in the last ten years :

Germany from 237 to 12

Alsace » 179 » 2

As is seen, the Germans always predominate and Italy and Russia remain with proportions Httle encouraging.

In South America these comparisons have not been made but the miHtary service in Argentina and in Chile returns « alfabetos » all the conscripts who enter without knowing how to read or write.

Of all South American countries, Argentina is that which makes the greatest progress and its programmes, more practical, begin to give better results. Masters are sought in Europe and the United States and the best methods of teaching of those countries are studied, and the present government does not omit any effort to introduce technical schools.

Few of these countries have an administration of Justice with rapid modes of procedure, but there has been a little exago;eration respecting their defaults and negligencies, and it must be acknowledged that laudable efforts are made to improve them. The governments have been convinced of the discredit occasioned by the mal-administration of justice and that it keeps away immigration and capital ; an ill-ordered system produces, as one of its most deplorable consequences, high rates of interest for borro\\ed money, thus impoverishing the class which works and produces. One of the most striking instances of this fact is afforded by the New Zealand Mortgage Company \\'hich charges 9 '^/o for loans in Buenos Aires and 5 °/„ in New Zealand. The proceedings there for putting the mortgage in force are rapid, expeditious and just ; here the intervention of third parties makes the suits interminable, and eventually, with the extravagant law expenses, the creditor is as much prejudiced as the debtor. Uruguay has adopted some proceedings which abbreviate and make more efficacious the process for enforcing mortgages, and it would be well for its neighbours to imitate it. I cannot state exactly what each one of these countries spends on Public Education, because, in most of the figures which I have been able to obtain, those relating to justice are included in those of Public Education; they are distributed, more or less, in the following manner :

Argentina -the Nation. $ 5,720

Peru » 725

BoUvia » 550

$ 23,060 Resulting per inhabitant:

To these sums must be added those which the different States of Brazil pay for Justice and Public Education, of which particulars are wanting, their statistics being in general very backward and deficient.

Argentina and Uruguay much surpass the other countries, and Argentina, spending a little less than Uruguay, educates, nevertheless, 3 °/o more of her population. Australia and New Zealand, which have three times the territory of Argentina and the same population, spend on public education only $ 12,000,000, that is to say $ 2.40 per inhabitant.

Anxiety is constantly felt respecting the political destiny of these countries. There is talk of foreign absorptions, conquests and invasions. The partition of Southern and Central America among the United States and some European States is the dream of those who consider that they would be benefited by it and who base upon these fancies not a few schemes which appear very simple on paper. One of our most distinguished guests Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich, the delegate of the King of Great Britain and Ireland, arbitrator in the boundary question between Chile and Argentina, would appear also to participate in these fears, for, at a banquet which the President of Argentina gave in honour of him, he recommended that we should not neglect military education but remember the maxim : Si vis pacem para belhini.

The militarization of these new countries, with a sparse labouring population, is not an evil if limited to teaching every citizen the use of fire-arms, in imitation of the Swiss. But they have their greatest enemy, some more than others, at home, as may be seen by the preceding figures. The greatest danger to prosperity and of being conquered consists in maintaining the masses in the ignorance in which they Hve. It is unworthy of the civilization of the present century to show so large a number of illiterate people, as it is, also, to adopt defective methods of teaching and to be constantly changing, through the caprice of the directors, the programmes of study with improvised text-books, which have not obtained either the sanction of the nations which excel us in the matter or the ripeness of experience. War should not be declared against knowledge and intelligence, by making it impossible for the foreigner, and even for the native who has been educated at his own expense in superior universities, to practise a scientific profession without submitting to mortifying examinations imposed for the protection of those who study in the universities of their own country.